The forgotten Crusades launched against Europe

The Northern Crusades, also known as the Baltic Crusades, were a series of military campaigns initiated by the Catholic Church and primarily led by the Teutonic Knights, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, and other Christian military orders.

These campaigns, which took place in the 12th to 15th centuries, aimed to convert the pagan tribes of the Baltic region to Christianity and to incorporate their territories into the Christian world.

The backdrop for the Northern Crusades was the broader context of the medieval Crusades, which were religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church to reclaim Christian territories and spread the faith.

While the more renowned Crusades targeted the Holy Land in the Middle East, the Northern Crusades were directed towards the northeastern parts of Europe, particularly present-day Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Russia.

These regions were inhabited by pagan tribes such as the Old Prussians, Livonians, and Lithuanians, who resisted Christian influence and maintained their ancestral beliefs.

The initial stages of the Northern Crusades began in the late 12th century when Christian merchants and missionaries, particularly from Germany and Denmark, started venturing into the Baltic territories.

Their efforts to Christianize the region were met with resistance, leading to the need for military intervention.

The Livonian Brothers of the Sword, founded in 1202, played a significant role in these early campaigns.

However, after suffering a major defeat in 1236, they merged with the Teutonic Knights, a powerful German military order.

Under the leadership of the Teutonic Knights, the crusading efforts intensified, leading to the establishment of the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights.

The campaigns were characterized by both military conquests and strategic alliances. While some tribes were forcefully converted, others chose to adopt Christianity to forge alliances and ensure their survival.

The Lithuanians, for instance, resisted the Teutonic Knights for centuries. It was only in the late 14th century, under the reign of Grand Duke Jogaila, that Lithuania officially adopted Christianity, primarily as a political move to counter the Teutonic threat by forming a union with Poland.

By the 15th century, the Northern Crusades began to wane. The Teutonic Knights faced internal challenges and external threats, especially from the combined forces of Poland and Lithuania.

The pivotal Battle of Grunwald in 1410 marked a significant defeat for the Teutonic Knights, signaling the decline of their power in the region.

Over the subsequent decades, the territories they had conquered gradually slipped from their grasp.

The Wendish Crusade, which took place in the mid-12th century, was a chapter in the broader narrative of the medieval Crusades, but it was distinct in its focus on the pagan Wends of the southern Baltic Sea coast, primarily in what is now modern-day northern Germany and Poland.

Unlike the more renowned Crusades aimed at the Holy Land, the Wendish Crusade was directed at the Slavic tribes close to the heart of Christian Europe, revealing the complex interplay of religious, political, and territorial ambitions in the region.

The Wends, a collective term for several West Slavic tribes, had long been a thorn in the side of the Christian states of Germany and Denmark.

Their resistance to Christianization and their frequent raids into neighboring territories made them a target for Christian expansion.

The idea of a crusade against the Wends was not just about religious conversion; it was also about securing the northeastern frontier of the Holy Roman Empire and expanding its influence.

The Wendish territories were seen as a buffer zone, and their incorporation was deemed essential for the stability and growth of the Christian states.

In 1147, concurrent with the Second Crusade to the Holy Land, the Wendish Crusade was launched. It was endorsed by notable figures like Bernard of Clairvaux, who saw the mission as a way to redirect the aggressive energies of the European nobility towards a 'worthy' cause.

The crusaders, primarily from the German states, were led by notable figures such as Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, and Albert the Bear, Margrave of Brandenburg.

However, the campaign was marked by a lack of unity and clear objectives. While some sought outright conquest, others aimed for tributary relationships or the establishment of Christian settlements.

The results of the Wendish Crusade were mixed. While there were successes, such as the capture of the stronghold of Dobin and the establishment of Christian bishoprics in the region, the overall objective of converting the Wends en masse and integrating their territories into the Christian fold was not fully realized.

The Wends resisted fiercely, and many of the newly established Christian settlements were frequently attacked.

Moreover, the internal divisions among the crusaders, coupled with the vast and challenging terrain of the Wendish lands, made sustained campaigns difficult.

In the aftermath of the Wendish Crusade, the process of Christianization and Germanization of the region continued, albeit at a slower pace.

Over the subsequent centuries, through a combination of missionary activities, colonization, and military campaigns, the Wendish territories were gradually absorbed into the Christian world. 

The Prussian Crusade, spanning the 13th century, was a series of military campaigns aimed at the conquest and Christianization of the Old Prussians, a pagan Baltic tribe residing in what is now modern-day northern Poland and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia.

This was one of the crusading movements that made up the greater Northern Crusades that were mentioned earlier.

The Prussian Crusade was a manifestation of the broader Christian endeavor to expand its religious and territorial influence, and it intertwined deeply with the ambitions of emerging European powers.

The Old Prussians, unrelated to the later German state of Prussia, were a Baltic tribe known for their resistance to Christian influence.

Their strategic location along the Baltic coast made them a target for both Christian missionaries and neighboring powers seeking to expand their territories.

By the 13th century, the increasing incursions by Christian missionaries and settlers into Prussian lands led to tensions and skirmishes, setting the stage for a larger conflict.

The Teutonic Knights, a German military-monastic order, became the primary force behind the Prussian Crusade.

Initially founded during the Crusades in the Holy Land, the Teutonic Knights were invited to the region by Polish dukes to assist in the Christianization of the Prussians.

With papal blessings and privileges, the Knights launched a series of campaigns against the Old Prussians starting in the 1230s.

Their approach combined military conquest with the establishment of fortified settlements and bishoprics, ensuring both spiritual and temporal control over the conquered territories.

However, the conquest of Prussia was not straightforward. The Old Prussians resisted fiercely, employing guerrilla tactics and taking advantage of the challenging terrains of forests and swamps.

The crusade was marked by cycles of Teutonic conquests followed by Prussian uprisings. It took several decades for the Teutonic Knights to establish firm control over the region.

The resilience of the Old Prussians was notable, but the organizational strength, military prowess, and persistence of the Teutonic Knights eventually prevailed.

By the end of the 13th century, the Old Prussian territories were largely under the control of the Teutonic Order, which then shifted its attention to other Baltic tribes and regions, such as Lithuania.

The legacy of the Prussian Crusade was profound. The Old Prussian culture and language gradually faded, replaced by German settlers and influences.

The Teutonic Knights established the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights, which became a significant power in the Baltic region.

The Prussian Crusade, thus, not only reshaped the religious landscape of the region but also its political and cultural dynamics, laying the groundwork for the future states of the Baltic and the intricate tapestry of European geopolitics.

The Albigensian Crusade, which unfolded in the early 13th century, was a pivotal event in the religious and political history of medieval Europe.

Unlike other crusades that targeted distant lands or non-Christian populations, this campaign was directed against the Cathars, a Christian dualist sect, in the heart of southern France.

The crusade was not just a religious endeavor but also a reflection of the power struggles and territorial ambitions within Christendom.

The Cathars, often referred to as Albigensians due to their strong presence in the city of Albi, held beliefs that were deemed heretical by the Catholic Church.

Central to Catharism was a dualistic view of the world, positing the existence of two gods: a good god of the spiritual realm and an evil god of the material world.

This belief system starkly contrasted with the orthodox Catholic doctrine, leading to tensions and confrontations.

By the late 12th century, Catharism had gained a significant following in the Languedoc region of southern France, alarming the Catholic establishment.

The immediate spark for the Albigensian Crusade was the murder of the papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau, in 1208, an act blamed on the supporters of the Cathar cause.

Pope Innocent III, already concerned about the spread of Catharism, responded by calling for a crusade against the Albigensians.

This call was not just about religious orthodoxy; it also resonated with northern French nobles who saw an opportunity to expand their territories and influence in the south.

The crusade, which began in 1209, was marked by extreme violence and brutality. Cities like Béziers and Carcassonne faced devastating sieges, with large numbers of inhabitants, both Cathar and Catholic, being massacred.

The infamous words, "Kill them all, God will know His own," allegedly uttered during the sack of Béziers, encapsulate the ferocity of the campaign.

Over the next two decades, the crusaders, led by figures like Simon de Montfort, systematically targeted Cathar strongholds, communities, and leaders, aiming to eradicate the heresy.

By the mid-1220s, the military campaigns of the Albigensian Crusade had largely crushed the Cathar political and military resistance.

However, the heresy persisted in more clandestine forms. In response, the Church established the Inquisition, a formal mechanism to identify, try, and punish heretics.

Over the subsequent decades, the Inquisition played a key role in the final suppression of Catharism.

In the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade, the Languedoc region was brought firmly under the control of the French crown, marking a significant step in the consolidation of the French territorial state.

The crusade, thus, had profound religious, political, and cultural implications. While it signaled the Church's uncompromising stance against heresy, it also reshaped the political landscape of southern France, integrating it more closely into the emerging French nation.

The Crusade of Varna, which culminated in 1444, was a significant military campaign in the late Middle Ages, marking one of the final attempts by European powers to halt the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Balkans.

By the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks had established themselves as a dominant force in the eastern Mediterranean, having already captured vast territories in Asia Minor, the Balkans, and even parts of southeastern Europe.

Their rapid expansion posed a direct threat to Christendom, prompting calls for collective action to counter the Ottoman advance.

The genesis of the Crusade of Varna can be traced back to the uneasy truce between the Ottomans and the Kingdom of Hungary following the Ottoman victory at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389.

As the 15th century progressed, the Ottomans, under Sultan Murad II, continued their campaigns in the Balkans, capturing the crucial city of Thessalonica and exerting pressure on the Byzantine capital, Constantinople.

These conquests alarmed European leaders, particularly those in Hungary and the Papal States, leading to calls for a new crusade to push back the Ottomans.

In 1443, a Christian alliance was formed, primarily driven by Janos Hunyadi, the governor of Hungary, and Władysław III, the King of Poland and Hungary.

This coalition, which also included forces from the Papal States, the Holy Roman Empire, and Wallachia, launched a campaign known as the "Long Campaign" or the "Crusade of the Long March."

Initially, the Christian forces achieved some successes, pushing deep into Ottoman territories and prompting Sultan Murad II to propose a peace treaty in 1444.

The ten-year truce, however, was short-lived. Encouraged by the Pope and believing in the possibility of a decisive victory, the Christian alliance decided to break the truce and confront the Ottomans once more.

This decision led to the climactic Battle of Varna on November 10, 1444. The Christian forces, confident and eager to exploit the perceived weakness of the Ottomans, were met by a well-prepared and strategically positioned Ottoman army.

The battle was fierce, but the tide turned decisively against the Christians when King Władysław III was killed, leading to a collapse in their morale.

The Ottomans emerged victorious, and the Crusade of Varna ended in a catastrophic defeat for the Christian alliance.

The aftermath of the Crusade of Varna had long-lasting implications. The defeat severely weakened the position of European powers in the Balkans and bolstered the confidence of the Ottoman Empire.

The way was paved for the Ottomans to continue their campaigns in southeastern Europe, culminating in the momentous capture of Constantinople in 1453.

The Crusade of Varna, thus, stands as a testament to the shifting balance of power in the late medieval period, highlighting the ascendancy of the Ottoman Empire and the challenges faced by a divided Christendom.