Commodus: The Roman emperor that lived a life of passionate extremes

Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger, was born into a dynasty that had ruled the Roman Empire with a blend of military might and philosophical wisdom.

His birth on August 31, 161 AD, during his father's reign, positioned him from the outset as a prominent figure within the Roman elite.

Unlike many of his predecessors, Commodus was designated as his father's successor from a young age, a decision that would shape the course of the empire's future.

His upbringing was marked by the luxury and education befitting a future emperor, surrounded by tutors and advisors intended to prepare him for his eventual role.

However, the philosophical stoicism that defined his father's approach to life and governance seemed to have less influence on Commodus, whose interests leaned more towards the athletic and extravagant.

In 177 AD, at the age of fifteen, Commodus was elevated to the position of co-emperor alongside his father, an unprecedented move that underscored Marcus Aurelius's desire for a smooth succession.

This period also saw Commodus taking on the consulship, further solidifying his status as heir apparent.

The joint rule was marked by military campaigns, most notably the Marcomannic Wars, where Commodus was given nominal roles that hinted at a future as a martial leader, a promise that ultimately went unfulfilled.

Upon the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 AD, Commodus ascended to the throne as sole emperor at the age of nineteen.

This transition was smooth, largely due to his father's efforts to secure his position within the Roman political structure.

However, the young emperor's disinterest in military campaigns and philosophical governance quickly became apparent.

Commodus's administrative approach showed a disinterest in the day-to-day governance of the empire, leading to the delegation of significant responsibilities to a cadre of favored officials.

These individuals, often chosen for their loyalty rather than their expertise, wielded considerable influence over imperial policies and decisions, contributing to a governance style marked by caprice and extravagance.

One of the most notable aspects of Commodus's administration was his focus on public entertainment and games.

He invested heavily in gladiatorial contests and other spectacles, seeking to curry favor with the populace and present himself as a benevolent and divine ruler.

This emphasis on entertainment, however, came at the expense of more pressing administrative and military concerns, leading to neglect of the empire's infrastructure and defenses.

Economically, Commodus's reign was characterized by financial irresponsibility.

He initiated several expensive building projects and increased the provision of public games and grain distributions, measures that strained the imperial treasury.

To cover these costs, Commodus significantly increased the silver content of the denarius.

This decision not only reduced the value of the currency but also led to inflation, diminishing the purchasing power of average Romans and contributing to economic instability throughout the empire.

Commodus showed little interest in the maintenance or improvement of Rome's legal system.

His rule saw an increase in the use of imperial edicts, often issued to settle personal scores or reward loyalty, undermining the legal traditions and stability of the Roman state.

The emperor's arbitrary use of power extended to the Senate, where he marginalized and intimidated senators, further eroding the traditional checks on imperial authority.

One of the earliest and most notable decisions of Commodus was to end the Marcomannic Wars, a series of conflicts that his father had vigorously pursued against Germanic tribes along the Danube frontier.

In 180 AD, shortly after coming to power, Commodus chose to negotiate peace, withdrawing Roman forces and making concessions to the tribes.

This move, while bringing temporary peace to the border regions, was criticized by many in the Roman military and political elite as a sign of weakness, undermining Rome's standing and inviting future incursions.

Throughout his reign, Commodus showed little interest in expanding or even securing the empire's frontiers.

His foreign policy was typified by a preference for diplomacy and appeasement over military engagement.

This stance allowed Commodus to focus on domestic affairs and his own personal interests, but it also meant that the Roman military, long the engine of the empire's expansion and security, languished.

The neglect of the army's training, discipline, and leadership under Commodus would have long-term repercussions for Rome's defensive capabilities.

He paid substantial sums to various barbarian groups to ensure they remained outside Roman territory, a policy that drained the imperial treasury and set a precedent for tribute that some saw as tantamount to extortion by Rome's enemies.

This approach, while avoiding immediate conflicts, did little to secure the empire's long-term borders or deter future threats.

He frequently appointed favorites and loyalists to key military positions, regardless of their experience or competence.

This practice demoralized the professional military cadre and contributed to a decline in the effectiveness of the Roman legions.

The lack of strong military leadership was felt most acutely on the frontiers, where local commanders often found themselves without the support or guidance needed to respond to emerging threats.

Commodus's personal fascination with the gladiatorial games and his participation in them were among the most striking examples of this shift.

Unlike any emperor before him, Commodus took to the arena as a combatant, an act that was both mesmerizing and appalling to the Roman populace.

This unprecedented involvement in what was considered a lower-class spectacle did more than just shock the sensibilities of the Roman elite; it fundamentally altered the imperial image, from a position of stoic leadership to one of populist entertainment.

His ego led to a reimagining of Rome's cultural landscape, with monuments and public works commissioned to glorify his rule.

The emperor's likeness adorned public spaces, and events were staged to celebrate his supposed divine ancestry and victories, both real and imagined.

This cult of personality around Commodus contributed to an atmosphere where the emperor's whims dictated cultural priorities, diverting resources from traditional civic improvements and the maintenance of public infrastructure.

The lavish spending on games and spectacles, coupled with the devaluation of the Roman currency, contributed to economic disparities and social unrest.

While the masses were momentarily appeased by the provision of grain and entertainment, the underlying issues of poverty, unemployment, and social inequality persisted and even worsened.

Commodus's reign saw a decline in the prestige of the Senate and traditional Roman institutions, as the emperor's autocratic tendencies marginalized these bodies in favor of a more centralized and personalistic form of governance.

This erosion of traditional governance structures and the emphasis on loyalty over merit in appointments undermined the effectiveness of the Roman administration and contributed to a sense of instability and decline among the elite and the broader populace.

Moreover, the emperor's actions and policies had lasting implications for the perception of the imperial office.

Commodus's self-indulgence and focus on personal aggrandizement came at a critical time for the Roman Empire, which faced increasing pressures on its borders and internal challenges. 

Unlike Aurelius, whose Stoic philosophy deeply influenced his leadership and policies, Commodus showed little interest in Stoicism or its principles of virtue, self-control, and duty.

Instead, his actions and beliefs reflected a more personal and idiosyncratic approach to religion and philosophy, one that emphasized his own divinity and the cult of personality.

Commodus actively promoted his image as a living god, aligning himself with Hercules and adopting the god's attributes as his own.

This self-deification was not just a matter of personal vanity; it was a deliberate strategy to secure his rule by tapping into the religious and cultural fabric of Roman society.

Commodus's portrayal of himself as Hercules incarnate, replete with depictions on coins and statues, was intended to evoke the strength, protection, and favor of the gods.

This approach to religion was a stark contrast to the more traditional and conservative religious practices of previous emperors, including the philosophical restraint shown by Marcus Aurelius.

This dissonance between the emperor's behavior and the expected norms of religious and philosophical conduct contributed to a sense of moral and social decay, undermining the moral authority of the imperial office.

His reign highlighted the challenges of maintaining a cohesive and stable society in the face of changing religious and philosophical ideals, particularly when those changes were driven by the personal agenda of an emperor. 

The final years of Commodus's reign were overshadowed by growing discontent among the Roman elite, the military, and even those within his inner circle.

This dissatisfaction culminated in a series of conspiracies aimed at ending his rule, which, until then, had been marked by extravagance, erratic behavior, and autocratic tendencies.

The seeds of conspiracy were sown through Commodus's own actions: his disregard for the Senate, the execution of perceived enemies without trial, and his increasingly unpredictable behavior alienated many who had once been loyal to him.

The first significant attempt on Commodus's life came in 182 AD, orchestrated by members of his own family and close advisors.

This plot, however, was swiftly uncovered, leading to the execution of several conspirators, including his sister Lucilla.

Despite this, Commodus did not alter his ways, and his reign continued to be characterized by suspicion and purges, further alienating those around him.

As the emperor became more isolated, the conspiracies against him grew more desperate.

The turning point came in late 192 AD, when a new plot was devised by a small group that included his chamberlain, Eclectus, his mistress, Marcia, and the prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Quintus Aemilius Laetus.

The motivations behind their actions were a combination of personal grievance, political opportunism, and a genuine concern for the stability of the empire.

On December 31, 192 AD, the conspirators acted. Commodus was poisoned by Marcia, but when the poison only made him ill, Narcissus, a wrestler, was sent to strangle him in his bath.

His death was initially kept secret to ensure a smooth transition of power, with Pertinax, a respected senator and military officer, being declared emperor the following day.

The news of Commodus's assassination was met with a mix of relief and apprehension, as Rome braced itself for the uncertain future that lay ahead.

Commodus was condemned by his successors, and his memory was subjected to damnatio memoriae, an attempt to erase him from the historical record.

This act reflected the widespread relief at his death and the desire to distance the Roman Empire from his controversial rule.

However, despite these efforts, Commodus's impact on the Roman Empire and its history has been enduring and complex.

Historical evaluations of Commodus have often focused on his eccentricities, his autocratic rule, and the perceived decline of the empire during his tenure.

His fascination with gladiatorial combat and self-deification, combined with his neglect of administrative duties and the military, are frequently cited as evidence of his tyranny and incompetence.

These aspects of his rule contributed to the instability that followed his assassination, ushering in a period of civil strife and the eventual decline of the Roman Empire.

Yet, in recent years, there has been a reevaluation of Commodus's legacy, with some scholars arguing that his reign was not solely responsible for the challenges that faced the Roman Empire in the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries.

This view suggests that while Commodus's policies and behavior exacerbated existing issues, they were also symptomatic of broader structural problems within the empire, including economic strain, military pressures, and political fragmentation.

Commodus, from this viewpoint, is seen as a product of his time, rather than the sole architect of Rome's troubles.

Moreover, the sensational aspects of Commodus's reign, such as his participation in the arena, have overshadowed other aspects of his rule, including efforts at diplomacy and the maintenance of peace in the empire's provinces.

While these actions do not absolve him of his failures, they offer a more nuanced picture of his governance.

Commodus's legacy is not only a reflection of his personal failures but also an object lesson in the challenges of imperial rule and the complexities of managing a diverse and expansive empire like Rome.