How did the Greeks win the Battle of Marathon?

On September of 490 BC, an army of 10,000 Greek soldiers led by the Athenian commander Miltiades defeated a Persian force that numbered over 25,000.

This unlikely victory is memorialised in history as one of the most impressive military feats ever accomplished.

Yet, how did such a small Greek army manage to defeat a much larger Persian force?

In this article, we will explore the tactics and strategies used by both sides in order to gain a better understanding of this significant battle.

In order to understand the Battle of Marathon, it is important to first understand the historical context surrounding it. 

In 490 BC, the Persian Empire was the largest empire in the world. They had conquered many lands and peoples, including those in modern-day Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.

This empire was ruled by King Darius I, who was considered to be an able administrator and clever military commander.

The Greeks, on the other hand, were not a united empire like the Persians. Instead, the Greeks were a people who were divided among individual cities.

Most peoples in the Greek world were more loyal to their city-states than to any idea of 'Greek-ness'.

These cities were, however, united by a common culture and language. Despite this, it was very common for the various Greek city-states to be at war with one another.

At the beginning of the 5th century BC, the Greek states were forced to put their differences aside if they hoped to create a united front against Persian aggression.

Darius may not have had any interest in invading Greece initially, as it was a small region on the edges of his empire.

However, Athens' involvement in the Ionian Revolt changed his mind. 

The Ionian Revolt was a rebellion by the Greek city-states of Ionia (modern-day Turkey) against Persian rule.

The Ionians had been conquered by Persia some years earlier and were now forced to pay tribute to the Persian king. In 499 BC, they rebelled and asked for help from the Greeks.

The Athenians responded to this request and sent ships and troops to aid the rebels.

This angered Darius and he vowed to punish Athens. He began making plans for a full-scale invasion of Greece.

Darius ordered the coastal cities of Asia Minor to provide 200 ships to help transport his invasion force, which numbered around 25,000, to Greece. 

The Persian invasion force was commanded by Datis and Artaphernes. Accompanying them was the former tyrant of Athens, Hippias, who hoped to be appointed as Persia's ruler over Athens following the assumed victory.

The Persian fleet island-hopped across the Aegean Sea, stopping at the islands of Samos, Naxos, and Delos. 

When they arrived at the island of Euboea, they attacked the cities of Carystus and Eretria, destroying them both as punishment for their role in supporting the Ionian Revolt.

Then, in September 490 BC, it arrived at Marathon in Attica (modern-day Greece).  The plain of Marathon was about 26 miles (about 42 kilometres) from Athens, and the Persians planned to march on the city and take it by force.

When news of the landing reached Athens, there were arguments in the Assembly about the best course of action. 

Some Athenians wanted to remain behind the safety of the city's walls and prepare for a siege, while others argued that the army should take the initiative and march out to attack the enemy.

The Athenian politician, Miltiades, who was elected as one of city's ten generals (strategoi) in 490 BC, encouraged the people march out of Athens, as he feared that long-time supporters of Hippias who still lived in the city might surrender the city to the Persians.

Miltiades' recommendation finally won the day and the soldiers headed towards Marathon.

The Athenians also sent a messenger to the Spartans, appealing for their military support.

The Spartans offered to help, but as they were observing a religious event, known as the Karneian Festival, at that time.

This was a festival to Apollo Carneius, a religious observance which prohibited them from leaving until the full moon.

When the Athenian troops arrived at Marathon, they positioned their forces in the foothills of Mt Pentelicus, which was a strong defensive location.

Here, they could either wait for potential Spartan reinforcements to arrive or brace themselves for the Persian attack. From the foothills, they could survey their enemy's numbers.

The Persian army had around 25,000 troops which had been disembarked onto the plain.

They vastly outnumbered the Athenians, who had only around 10,000 of their own hoplites.

However, the Athenian force was also supported by and additional 600–1000 hoplites from the allied city of Plataea.

Marathon was chosen as a landing site for the Persians because it offered ideal terrain for horsemen.

The Persian army also employed large units of archers, who would rain arrows down on the Greeks from a distance.

The Greek army, on the other hand, was primarily composed of infantrymen armed with spears and swords.

When the Persians saw the Greek forces arriving, they left their camp and lined up about 1.5 kilometres from the Greeks.

Both sides waited for several days, waiting for the other to make the first move.

In the Athenian camp, the ten strategoi could not reach a clear consensus about the best course of action.

Five of them, including Miltiades, wanted to attack as soon as they could, while the others, including Callimachus, wanted to wait for reinforcements.

To break the deadlock, Miltiades successfully encouraged Callimachus to change his mind.

Having made the decision to attack, the Greeks were suddenly alerted to the fat that the Persian cavalry was missing from camp.

The surviving historical sources are not clear where they had gone. It has been suggested that they may have returned to the ships in preparation for a surprise attack on Athens by sea, or that they had been moved north to find better grazing ground.

Regardless, Miltiades believed that it was a valuable opportunity to attack the Persians while their greatest threat was absent, and he ordered the Greeks to attack.

Miltiades ordered his men to march quickly towards the Persian line. The Persian archers fired arrows at the Greeks, but the arrows were too light to cause significant damage to the bronze-armored hoplites.

Then, when the Greek hoplites were around 400 metres from the enemy, Miltiades orders his men to sprint straight at the enemy lines.

This was a risky move, as running in heavy armour would quickly tire out the soldiers, leaving them exhausted when they finally began fighting with their enemy. 

However, as Miltiades had hoped, the Greek charge caught the Persians by surprise.

They were not expecting such a bold move from the Greeks and were unprepared for it. In the centre of the battlefield, the overwhelming Persian numbers successfully broke through the Greek line, which was often a sign of an impending victory.

However, on the left and right wings of the battle, the Greeks successfully drove the Persians back.

This meant that the Persians in the centre were now surrounded on both sides by the Greeks and bloody hand-to-hand combat began.

Soon, the Persian forces panicked, turned, and fled back towards the safety of their ships.

The Athenian soldiers pursued them and killed many more of them as they tried to escape.

In all, it is estimated that around 6000 Persians died in the Battle of Marathon, while only 192 Athens soldiers were killed.

The Greek general Callimachus was among the dead.

The Persians that made it back to the ships did not give up on their plan to conquer Athens and sailed around the coast of Attica towards the city.

However, when they arrived, they found that the Athenians soldiers had quickly marched back from Marathon and were ready to fight again. 

Unwilling to face another defeat so quickly after Marathon, the Persian forces then gave up and sailed back to Persia.

Sparta did eventually fulfil its promise to send troops, and 2000 Spartan hoplites arrived in Athens well after the battle was over.

They were so surprised to learn of Athens' stunning victory, that the Spartans asked to be shown the battlefield themselves.

King Darius was so angry about his defeat at Marathon that he vowed to take revenge on the Greeks.

He planned to lead another expedition against Greece, this time with an even larger army.

The news of the Greek victory at Marathon spread quickly throughout Greece. The Greeks were ecstatic that they had defeated such a large Persian force.

This victory boosted Greek morale and inspired them to resist Persian rule.

The Athenian dead were buried in a mass grave on the battlefield, and a stone pillar was erected to commemorate their sacrifice. 

The Battle of Marathon is a significant event in Greek history because it was the first time that the Greeks had defeated the Persians in open combat.

This victory showed the Greeks that they could resist Persian rule, and it inspired them to fight for their freedom.

Modern races are called 'marathons' because of this battle. The soldiers who fought at Marathon had to rapidly march around 26 miles (42 kilometres) from the battlefield back to Athens to warn the city of the approaching Persian army.

This was a remarkable feat, and it has been commemorated by modern marathon races.

The Battle of Marathon was a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars. It showed that the Greeks could stand up to the mighty Persian Empire and even defeat it.

The stage was now set for further conflict between these two great empires.