Historical sources on the death of Alexander the Great

[73] As Alexander the Great was on his way to enter Babylon, Nearchus (who had joined him again after sailing through the ocean into the Euphrates) told the king that certain Chaldaeans had met him and advised that Alexander should keep away from Babylon.⁠ Alexander ignored this, but continued on his march; and when he was arrived at the walls, he saw many ravens flying about and fighting each other, and some of them fell dead at his feet. Again, being informed that Apollodorus, the commander of Babylon, had sacrificed to learn Alexander's fate, Alexander called Pythagoras the seer. Pythagoras did not deny the fact, so Alexander asked him what the nature of the sacrifice was. And when the seer said that the victim's liver had no lobe, "Ah me!" said Alexander, "a powerful omen!" and did not harm Pythagoras. He was sorry, too, that he had not obeyed Nearchus, and passed most of his time outside of Babylon, either living in his tent, or sailing about on the Euphrates. And he was troubled by many signs. For instance, the largest and most impressive lion in his animal collection was attacked by a tame donkey and kicked to death. Again, he once took off his clothes for exercise and was playing ball, and when it was time to dress again, the young men who were playing with him saw a man seated on the king's throne, in silence, wearing the royal crown and robes. When the man was asked who he was, he was speechless for a long time; but at last he came to his senses and said that his name was Dionysius, and that he was a native of Messenia; he said that he had been brought there from the coast because of a charge against him, and for a long time had been in chains; but just now the god Serapis had come to him and freed him from his chains and brought him to this spot, telling him to put on the robe and crown, sit on the throne, and be silent. 

[74] When he heard this, Alexander had the man removed, as the seers directed; but he began to be gloomy and was no longer believed that Heaven favoured him and suspicious of his friends. He was particularly afraid of Antipater and of his sons, one of whom, Iolas, was his chief cupbearer; the other, Cassander, had only recently come to Babylon, and when he saw some Barbarians bowing to Alexander, since he had been raised as a Greek and had never seen such a sight as this before, he laughed loudly. But Alexander was enraged and seized him by the hair with both hands and dashed his head against the wall. And at another time, when Cassander would have said something against those who were bringing charges against Antipater, Alexander interrupted him, saying: Alexander said, “What do you mean? Why would these men have travelled such a long way unless they had truly been wronged? Why would they lie after coming so far?” When Cassander replied that the distance they had come actually made their claims less believable, since the evidence was so far away, Alexander laughed and said, “That’s the kind of clever trick you get from Aristotle’s students—arguing both sides just to confuse people. But you’ll regret it if it turns out you’ve treated these men unfairly, even in a small way.” And in general, as we are told, Cassander was filled with intense fear of Alexander, so that many years later, when he was now king of Macedonia and master of Greece, as he was walking about and looking at the statues at Delphi, the sight of an image of Alexander gave him a sudden shudder and trembling that he could hardly recover from and made him feel dizzy. 

[75] Alexander, then, had become more aware of the gods' signs and was upset and anxious, treated every unusual event, however small, as an omen; and priests, purifiers and diviners filled his palace. So, you see, it was a serious matter to doubt the gods' signs and to dismiss them. Superstition was also a serious problem. It filled Alexander with foolish behaviour like water running downhill and made him give in to his fears. Still, after answers from oracles about Hephaestion were brought to him, he put aside his grief and returned to sacrifices and drinking sessions. He held a feast for Nearchus, He had taken his usual bath before going to bed. At Medius's request he joined a late-night celebration with him.
 After drinking the next day, he developed a fever. This did not happen after he had drunk a "bowl of Heracles" or after he experienced a sudden pain in the back as though struck by a spear. Some writers included those details and invented a dramatic ending. But Aristobulus said he had a high fever, and that when he became very thirsty, he drank wine, and he became confused, and died on the thirtieth day of the month Daesius.

[76] Also, the court records contain the following details about his illness.
 On the eighteenth of the month of Daesius, he slept in the bathroom because he had a fever. On the following day, after his bath, he moved to his bedroom and spent the day playing dice with Medius. Then, when it was late, he took a bath, made sacrifices to the gods, ate a little, and had a fever all night. On the twentieth, after bathing again, he made his usual sacrifice; and lying in the bathing-room he listened to Nearchus and heard his story of the voyage and the open sea. The twenty-first he spent the same way and his health got worse. During the night he was very ill and the next day his fever stayed high. So, he moved his bed and lay beside the main bath, where he spoke with his officers about the vacant positions in the army and how they might be filled with experienced soldiers. On the twenty-fourth his fever was severe, and he had to be carried outside to make his sacrifices; He also told his senior officers to stay in the palace court and told division and company commanders to spend the night outside. He was carried to the palace on the other side of the river on the twenty-fifth, and got a little sleep, but his fever did not ease. And when his commanders came to his bedside, he was speechless, as he was also on the twenty-sixth; The Macedonians then decided he was dead. They came shouting at the palace doors and threatened his companions until their resistance ended. When the doors opened, they walked slowly past his bed without a cloak or armour. During this day, too, Python and Seleucus were sent to the temple of Serapis to ask whether they should bring Alexander there. The god answered that they should leave him where he was. And on the twenty-eighth, he died on the evening. 

[77] Most of this report follows the "Journals" exactly. At first, no one suspected poisoning. Five years later, after new information, Olympias executed many men and scattered Iolas's ashes, claiming he had given the poison. Those who said Aristotle advised Antipater to carry out the act and that the poison came through him named Hagnothemis as their source. Hagnothemis said he heard the story from King Antigonus. They said the poison was icy water taken from a cliff in Nonacris. They collected it like dew and stored it in a donkey's hoof because no other container would hold it. Other containers would be damaged by it because of its cold and sharp taste. Most writers think the poisoning story was invented. They point out that during the disagreements among Alexander's commanders, which lasted many days, his body lay without special care in damp, hot places but showed no sign of harm and remained undamaged. 

Roxana was pregnant and so she was respected by the Macedonians. She became jealous of Stateira and tricked her with a forged letter to come to her. When Stateira arrived, Roxana killed her and her sister, threw their bodies into a well, and covered the well with earth. Perdiccas knew about the act and helped. He held most of the real power and kept Arrhidaeus close to keep royal power secure. Arrhidaeus was Philip's son by a woman of low birth named Philinna and had a mental disability because of illness. People said his condition did not develop naturally. As a boy he showed great promise and a noble character. Later, people said Olympias gave him drugs that harmed his body and his mind. 

Bibliographical reference:

Plutarch, Life of Alexander, 73-7.

Contextual statement:

Plutarch was a Greek historian, biographer, and moral philosopher who lived during the first and early second centuries AD. Born around AD 46 in the town of Chaeronea in Boeotia, he spent much of his life writing about famous figures from Greek and Roman history. His most well-known works are the Parallel Lives, a series of paired biographies comparing Greek and Roman leaders, and the Moralia, a collection of essays and dialogues on ethical, religious, and political topics. His writing blended historical detail with moral reflections.

[24] A few days later Alexander was sitting at dinner with his friends and drinking far into the night. He had previously celebrated the usual sacrificial rites in thanks for his success, adding certain others in obedience to his seers' advice, and had also, we are told, distributed wine and sacrificial victims among the different units and parts of the army. According to some accounts, when he wished to leave his friends at their drinking and retire to his bedroom, he happened to meet Medius, who at that time was the closest companion, and Medius asked him to come and continue drinking at his own table, adding that the party would be a lively one. 

[25] The Royal diaries confirm the fact that he drank with Medius after his first first drinking session. Then (they continue) he left the table, bathed, and went to sleep, after which he had supper with Medius and again began drinking, continuing till late at night. Then, once more, he took a bath, ate a little, and went straight to sleep, already ill with fever. Next day he was carried out on his bed to perform his daily religious duties as usual, and after the ceremony lay in the men's quarters till dark. He continued to issue orders to his officers, instructing those who were to march by land to be ready to start in three days and those who were going with himself by sea to sail one day later. 

From there he was carried on his bed to the river, and crossed in a boat to the park on the further side, where he took another bath and rested. Next day he bathed again and offered sacrifice as usual, after which he went to lie down in his room, where he chatted to Medius and gave orders for his officers to report to him early next morning. Then he took a little food, returned to his room, and lay all night in a fever. The following morning he bathed and offered sacrifice, and then gave Nearchus and the other officers detailed instructions about the voyage, scheduled to start in two days. Next day he bathed again, went through regular religious duties, and was afterwards with a constant fever. 

Nevertheless he sent for his staff as usual and gave them further instructions on their preparations for sailing. In the evening, after another bath, his condition was serious, and the following morning he was moved to the building near the swimming-pool. He offered sacrifice, and, in spite of his increasing weakness, sent for his senior officers and repeated his orders for the expedition. The day after that he just managed to have himself carried to his place of prayer, and after the ceremony still continued, in spite of his weakness, to issue instructions to his staff. Another day passed. Now very seriously ill, he still refused to neglect his religious duties; he gave orders, however, that his senior officers should wait in the court, and the battalion and company commanders outside his door. Then, his condition already desperate, he was moved from the park back to the palace. He recognized his officers when they entered his room but could no longer speak to them. From that moment until the end he uttered no word. That night and the following day, and for the next twenty-four hours, he remained in a high fever. 

[26] These details are all to be found in the Diaries. It is further recorded in these documents that the soldiers were keen to see him; some hoped for a sight of him while he was still alive; others wished to see his body, for a report had gone round that he was already dead, and they suspected, I fancy, that his death was being concealed by his guards. But nothing could keep them from a sight of him, and the motive in almost every heart was grief and a feeling of confusion and helplessness at the thought of losing their king. Lying speechless as the men filed by, he yet struggled to raise his head, and in his eyes there was a look of recognition for each individual as he passed. The Diaries say that Peitho, Attalus, Demophon, and Peucestas, together with Cleomenes, Menidas, and Seleucus, spent the night in the temple of Serapis and asked the god if it would be better for Alexander to be carried into the temple himself, in order to pray there and perhaps recover; but the god forbade it, and said it would be better for him to stay where he was. The god's command was made public, and soon afterwards Alexander died - this, after all being the "better" thing. The accounts of both Ptolemy and Aristobulus end at this point. Other writers have added that the high officers most closely in his confidence asked him to name his successor, and that Alexander's reply was "the best man". There is also a story that he went on to say that he knew very well there would be funeral "games" seriously after he was dead. 

[27] I am aware that much else has been written about Alexander's death: for instance, that Antipater sent him some medicine which had been altered and that he took it, with deadly results. Aristotle is supposed to have made up this drug, because he was already afraid of Alexander on account of Callisthenes' death, and Antipater's son Cassander is said to have brought it. Some accounts declare that he brought it in a mule's hoof, and that it was given Alexander by Cassander's younger brother Iollas, who was his cup-bearer and had been hurt by him in some way shortly before his death; others state that Medius, who was Iollas' lover, had a hand in it, and support that view by the fact that it was Medius who invited Alexander to the drinking- party - he felt a sharp pain after drinking from the cup, and left the party shortly after. 

Bibliographical reference:

Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, VII.24-7.

Contextual statement:

Arrian was a Greek historian, philosopher, and military commander who lived during the Roman Empire in the second century AD. Born in Nicomedia around AD 86, he studied under the Stoic philosopher Epictetus and later served as a Roman provincial governor under Emperor Hadrian. He is best known for his work Anabasis of Alexander, which provides a detailed account of Alexander the Great’s military campaigns. Arrian relied heavily on the writings of eyewitnesses such as Ptolemy and Aristobulus, and his work is considered one of the most reliable surviving sources on Alexander’s life and conquests.