Black cats and broomsticks: The long and troubled history of witchcraft

Witchcraft is the practice of, and belief in, magical abilities that often involve the calling of spirits or gods and the use of spells and charms. 

However, it is important to note that the term's meaning changes a lot depending on the culture. 

When people lived in a world full of spiritual meaning, they saw something divine in the natural world around them, from the movements of the sun and stars to the changing of the seasons. 

Shamans and medicine people, who were believed to heal, predict the future, and control natural events, were seen as go-betweens for the mortal world and the divine. 

Such early forms of magical practice can be seen as a forerunner to what would later be called witchcraft.

Classical antiquity also had its share of witchcraft, although it was shown differently. 

For example, the ancient Greeks and Romans believed in magic and witchcraft as shown in their myths and literature. 

A figure like shape-changing witch goddess Circe in Homer's Odyssey is an example of this belief. 

Likewise, scholars in ancient Near Eastern societies like Babylonia and Assyria found many records of witchcraft. 

They developed intricate systems of magic and divination, reflecting their belief that words and rituals held the power to influence the gods and the forces of nature.

It is important to note that these early versions of witchcraft were not seen as always evil or sinister. 

Since they were integral to these societies' spiritual and cultural life and served as ways to explain and influence the world, the distinction between good and evil witchcraft, which became significant in later periods, had not yet emerged.

As Christianity spread through Europe during the Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries), it brought new attitudes towards magic and witchcraft very different from the beliefs of earlier societies.  

Because the Church wanted to control spiritual matters, it began to call certain practices heretical and eventually linked witchcraft with devil worship. The idea of witches as evil, devil-worshipping people appeared during this time and was driven by religious, cultural, and social factors. 

In the early Middle Ages, Church leaders mostly dismissed belief in witches and witchcraft as superstitions.

However, by the late Middle Ages and the start of the Early Modern Period this attitude had changed and witches were more and more seen as agents of the devil, using magic to cause harm and chaos.

A defining moment in this period involved the growth of the 'witch stereotype' - a Christianity-rejecting, devil-dealing person, usually a woman, giving her the power to perform harmful magic. 

It is important to note that this idea of the witch as always an evil figure was different from earlier beliefs that allowed magic to be used for both good and harmful purposes. 

These changing beliefs led to the infamous witch hunts, a dark and frightening chapter in the history of witchcraft. The Church, along with non-religious authorities, started putting people accused of witchcraft on trial.

It was during this time that books like the Malleus Maleficarum, a well-known manual for witch hunters, were written and spread.

It was published in 1486 by Heinrich Kramer, and it was very influential in some regions, but not officially adopted by the Catholic Church.

The witch hunts were not only a religious event but were also closely tied to the social, political, and economic changes of the time. 

Accusations of witchcraft were often used to control and oppress marginalized groups, especially women, and they were also used to settle personal disputes, take property, or remove rivals.

The Early Modern Period, from about the 15th to the 18th centuries, saw the height of the fear and panic about witchcraft and became known as the 'Burning Times' in modern witchcraft circles.

It featured widespread and organised witch hunts that swept across Europe and the New World, which led to the execution of an estimated 40,000 to 60,000 people accused of witchcraft. 

Roughly 75–85% of those accused and executed for witchcraft in early modern Europe were women.

Because witch hunts during this time were driven by a mix of religious, social, political, and economic factors, they often became moral panics, which were fed by fear of the unknown, social instability, and the perceived threat to religious correctness. 

Also, widespread beliefs in the supernatural, the real fear of the Devil's influence, and the growing sense of shared identity and nationalism all played major roles that drove these waves of persecution.

England's first Witchcraft Act was passed in 1542 under Henry VIII, making witchcraft a capital offence punishable by death.

Among the most famous witch trials were those held in Salem, Massachusetts in the late 17th century. 

The Salem witch trials of 1692-1693 led to the execution of 20 people and the imprisonment of 150 more. Such trials were a clear reminder of how fear and paranoia could control a community and cause serious miscarriages of justice. 

Major witch hunts took place in several regions in Europe, including Germany, Scotland, England and France. The trials in Trier in Germany between 1581 and 1593 were among the largest in Europe and they led to 368 people being executed including nobles, clergy and children.  

The Pendle witch trials in England in 1612 were also famous for their cruelty and the use of child testimony.

Despite the terrible nature of the witch hunts, they did lead to the push for legal reforms, rules of evidence, and they even helped start modern legal representation. 

By the late 17th and early 18th centuries, shifting social attitudes, doubt about witchcraft, and changes in the law gradually ended the large-scale witch trials. 

The Enlightenment, a period running from the late 17th to the late 18th century, caused a significant change in how people saw witchcraft. 

The age was known for a rise in intellectual and philosophical progress, promoting reason, science, and personal rights as main ideas. 

The emphasis on reason during that period contributed significantly to reducing the fear and superstition that fueled the witch hunts of the Early Modern Period. 

Growing doubt about the existence of witches began to spread through society, especially among educated people. 

Influential figures such as Voltaire and Thomas Hobbes publicly mocked the belief in witches as unreasonable and based on superstition. 

Laws were gradually changed, with the Witchcraft Act of 1735 in England showing a clear shift by punishing people for pretending to be witches rather than being witches themselves. 

In other words, witchcraft was seen as a crime or trick rather than a real and dangerous threat.

The Industrial Revolution in the late 18th-century further pushed these changes. 

Subsequently, as societies went through fast industrial growth and moved to cities, traditional belief systems often faded, replaced by a growing trust in science, technology, and progress. 

The mysterious and magical gave way to the logical and mechanical, pushing beliefs in witchcraft to the edge. 

Nonetheless, despite these shifts, folk traditions and beliefs in the supernatural continued, especially in rural areas. 

Spiritualism emerged in the 1840s, which was a movement based on the idea that people could communicate with the spirits of the dead.

While not witchcraft itself, Spiritualism shared witchcraft's link with the supernatural and the occult and showed how these interests continued to change and found new forms.

While the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution saw a drop in the active persecution of witches, they did not remove the idea of witchcraft from common thought. 

Instead, witchcraft began to take on a new cultural role, especially in literature and the growing field of anthropology. 

In these areas, witchcraft was often idealized or used as a symbol for social issues, showing the ongoing fascination and fear around this idea.

While much of the focus on witchcraft's history tends to center around Europe and the Americas, the belief in witchcraft and magical practices is truly global, appearing in different forms across non-Western cultures. 

In Africa, the idea of witchcraft is deeply rooted in many societies, with different cultures having their own beliefs and practices. 

In some communities, witchcraft is linked with using spiritual or supernatural powers to harm others or cause bad luck. 

It often serves as an explanation for things that cannot be explained or personal misfortunes, from illness to financial loss. 

On the other hand, in some societies, people with magical powers may also be respected and turned to for healing, protection, and advice. 

The split between good and bad magic common in witchcraft history is clear here.

Across Asia, beliefs in witchcraft vary a lot. In the Indian subcontinent, the belief in witches and magic is common in some areas, especially in rural and tribal communities. 

Similarly, like African beliefs, these practices often involve blaming personal or community misfortune on the harmful influence of witches. 

Meanwhile, in East Asian cultures, practices such as Chinese folk religion and Shinto in Japan have elements similar to witchcraft, with a focus on ancestral spirits, divination, and the balance of natural forces. 

In the indigenous cultures of Australia and the Pacific Islands, as well as the Americas, practices like witchcraft form part of detailed spiritual and social systems. 

Such practices can include talking with the spirit world, using charms or spells, and divination.

At the same time, it is important to stress that these practices and beliefs are varied and complex, and should not be oversimplified or judged through a Western perspective. 

Also, while they may share similarities with Western ideas of witchcraft, they are unique and closely tied to the context where they developed.

The perception and practice of witchcraft has gone through major changes in the modern world, adapting and evolving with changes in society. 

Today, witchcraft exists in many forms across the globe, and these forms serve as a spiritual practice and a way for people to feel empowered. 

One of the most prominent forms of modern witchcraft is Wicca. Developed in the 1950s by Gerald Gardner, Wicca is a modern pagan faith centered on witchcraft that has gained widespread recognition and acceptance.

Wicca's focus on the divine feminine, respect for the environment, and personal spiritual freedom reflects many modern concerns, and this made it attractive to many contemporary practitioners of witchcraft.

Alongside Wicca, many other neo-pagan and witchcraft traditions have also developed, which draw ideas from various historical, cultural, and mythological sources. 

These can include everything from modern versions of old Celtic practices to combinations of various magical traditions. 

In popular culture, the figure of the witch continues to capture attention and interest. 

From literature and film to Halloween costumes and internet memes, witches are a common figure in modern society, and they are used to express views about social issues, rebellion and empowerment, or simply as entertaining figures of fantasy and horror.

Unfortunately, fear and misunderstanding of witchcraft still exist in some parts of the world, where accusations of witchcraft can still lead to violence and persecution. 

In academia, the study of witchcraft and its history has gained significant attention. 

Scholars from different fields, including history, anthropology, sociology, and gender studies, have given deep analyses of witchcraft, which show its many roles and meanings over time.