Unveiling the Vatican: The tumultuous history of the popes

In the earliest centuries of Christianity, the bishops of Rome gained influence because of the city’s historical status and their claim to apostolic succession from Saint Peter.

During the Roman Empire, early popes such as Clement I (r. c. 88–99) and Sixtus II (r. c. 257–258) led Christian communities that operated under persecution. In particular, Sixtus II was killed during the persecution of Christians under Emperor Valerian.

It was not until the fourth century, after Emperor Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan in AD 313 to allow Christianity, that the bishops of Rome began to hold wider authority.

The power of the papacy grew when Pope Leo I, in 452 AD, met Attila the Hun near the Mincio River and convinced him to leave Italy.

This episode, though later made more dramatic in stories, gave birth to the idea of the pope as both a religious and diplomatic figure. 

By the Middle Ages, the papacy had become a strong political institution. During the Gregorian Reforms of the eleventh century, Pope Gregory VII introduced changes such as enforcing clerical celibacy and ending the buying of church offices.

He clashed with the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV over the right to choose bishops.

This conflict, known as the Investiture Controversy, showed the Church’s increasing independence from imperial control.

The pope excommunicated the emperor more than once, and in 1077, Henry travelled to Canossa to publicly ask for forgiveness and have his excommunication lifted.

This event became a key moment in the medieval power struggle between Church and state.

The final agreement, called the Concordat of Worms in 1122, ended the dispute by creating a compromise over the appointment of bishops. 

Yet the Vatican’s power came with internal problems. The papal court in Rome became known for violent power struggles, the rise of family favouritism, and repeated moral scandals.

During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, this unrest helped lead to the move of the papacy to Avignon, where seven French popes ruled from 1309 to 1377.

This seventy-year period, often called the “Babylonian Captivity of the Church,” hurt the reputation of the papacy.

When the papal seat returned to Rome, the crisis deepened with the Great Western Schism, which lasted from 1378 to 1417.

During this time, rival popes were chosen and supported at the same time by groups in Rome, Avignon, and the Council of Pisa.

The schism began with the disputed elections of Urban VI in Rome and Clement VII in Avignon.

Church councils tried to end the conflict, but it continued until the Council of Constance removed or accepted the resignations of all three claimants and chose Martin V in 1417. 

The Renaissance popes of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries brought back much of the Vatican’s beauty, but their political goals and personal corruption drew strong criticism.

Popes such as Alexander VI (r. 1492–1503), of the Borgia family, openly gave top positions to relatives and waged wars.

His rule saw murder plots, the growth of papal lands through violence, and the rise of his illegitimate children, especially Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia.

In comparison, Julius II (r. 1503–1513), known as the “Warrior Pope,” led armies and hired Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, combining art with power.

Meanwhile, Leo X (r. 1513–1521) allowed the sale of indulgences through deals with local church leaders to raise money for building St. Peter's Basilica.

This practice helped spark the Protestant Reformation in 1517, when Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses in Wittenberg. 

The Counter-Reformation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw popes regain some religious leadership.

The Council of Trent, which ended in 1563, strengthened Catholic teaching and improved discipline among priests.

The Jesuit order, formed with papal support, became a major force in renewing Catholic influence in Europe and beyond.

But this renewal could not stop northern Europe from turning to Protestantism, or stop kings from limiting the pope’s authority in their countries. 

In more recent times, the papacy went through major changes. The Napoleonic Wars and the unification of Italy in the nineteenth century cut back the pope’s land control.

The Papal States were mostly taken by Italian nationalists in 1860, and in 1870, Rome itself was captured.

Pope Pius IX called himself a “prisoner of the Vatican” and refused to accept the new Italian government.

This period of isolation ended with the Lateran Treaty of 1929, when Pope Pius XI made a deal with Benito Mussolini, who signed it for King Victor Emmanuel III.

The treaty made Vatican City an independent state, gave the pope control over it, and included a payment of 750 million lire, while also making Catholicism the state religion of Italy. 

In the twentieth century, popes faced the problems of worldwide wars, extreme political ideas, and changing public views.

Pope Pius XII led the Church during World War II and remains a subject of debate over how he acted during the Holocaust.

His successors, including John XXIII and Paul VI, led the Second Vatican Council between 1962 and 1965.

This council changed Catholic worship practices, supported dialogue between religions, and recognised the need for reform in the Church, producing key documents such as Lumen Gentium and Nostra Aetate.

John Paul II became the first non-Italian pope in over four hundred years and spoke out against communism.

During his time as pope, he travelled to 104 countries and named 482 saints, helping to rebuild some of the Church’s lost credibility and influence, and expand its global reach.