What was it like to live in the Mongol empire?

After years of warfare between rival tribes, the foundations of the Mongol Empire began in 1206 when a man named Temüjin united the Mongol clans and declared himself Genghis Khan.

Born around 1162 near the Onon River in present-day Mongolia, Temüjin used military alliances, personal loyalty, and ruthless punishment of betrayal to secure control over the steppes.

His leadership style rewarded ability over lineage, which helped him attract skilled commanders and soldiers.

Once the tribes united under his rule, the Mongols adopted a military structure built on decimal units and strict discipline, which allowed them to operate with speed and coordination across vast distances. 

By the 1220s, Mongol armies had launched campaigns across Central Asia, capturing cities such as Samarkand, Bukhara, and Merv.

After Genghis Khan’s death in 1227, his descendants continued to expand the empire in every direction.

Under Ögedei, Mongol forces reached Eastern Europe, sacked Kiev in 1240, and raided as far west as Hungary and Poland.

At the same time, they moved east into China and south into the Islamic world, breaking the power of the Khwarezmian Empire and threatening the Abbasid Caliphate.

As a result, the Mongol Empire grew into an unmatched superpower across Eurasia. 

Instead of imposing a single system of rule, the Mongol Khans allowed a degree of local autonomy, especially in areas with well-established bureaucracies.

The empire relied on a central ruling family descended from Genghis Khan, divided into four major khanates after the 1250s: the Yuan Dynasty in China, the Ilkhanate in Persia, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, and the Golden Horde in Russia.

Each khanate had its own government, although they all owed nominal loyalty to the Great Khan in the east.

Important decisions often required a kurultai, or council of nobles, where succession, military campaigns, and policy were debated. 

The administrative system depended on skilled scribes, translators, and tax collectors drawn from across the empire.

The Mongols made use of the yam relay system, a network of waystations and mounted couriers who allowed orders, reports, and messages to move swiftly across the empire.

The yam posts ensured communication from Karakorum in Mongolia to Baghdad or Beijing.

Census-taking, tribute systems, and legal oversight helped the Khans extract resources and monitor their populations.

In China, Kublai Khan maintained a civil service structure that drew on Chinese precedent, although Mongols and their allies received preferential treatment over the Han Chinese majority. 

Conquest did not result in the destruction of all local customs. Mongol rulers often employed experts from conquered regions, including Persian administrators, Chinese engineers, Armenian scribes, and Arab astronomers.

Genghis Khan famously promoted individuals based on merit rather than background.

As the empire expanded, its rulers encouraged craftsmen, scholars, and merchants to relocate and work for the court.

The Persian scholar Nasir al-Din al-Tusi worked under Hulagu Khan, and Chinese officials served in high-ranking positions in the Yuan administration. 

Also, religious tolerance became an important feature of Mongol rule. The Khans, who followed traditional Mongol shamanistic practices, supported Buddhist monks, Christian missionaries, Muslim scholars, and Taoist priests.

They often provided tax exemptions for religious leaders and protected sacred institutions.

In the Ilkhanate, rulers initially leaned towards Buddhism, but by the late thirteenth century they converted to Islam.

In China, Kublai Khan invited Buddhist and Daoist figures to court but also welcomed Nestorian Christians and Muslim administrators.

This wide tolerance helped reduce resistance and allowed the empire to absorb a wide range of ideas and technologies. 

Daily life for most subjects of the Mongol Empire involved agriculture, herding, craft production, or trade.

Peasants in China and the Middle East worked on farms, paid taxes, and had to provide resources for the Mongol administration.

In the steppes, nomadic herders raised sheep, horses, goats, and camels, continuing traditional ways of life under Mongol rule.

In urban centres, people worked as merchants, artisans, or religious leaders. Cities such as Sarai, Samarkand, and Dadu (modern Beijing) grew significantly due to increased trade and imperial investment. 

The empire supported commerce on an unprecedented scale. The Pax Mongolica, a period of relative stability and safety across the empire, allowed merchants to travel the Silk Roads with greater security.

Caravans moved from Europe to China carrying goods such as silk, spices, gold, and glassware.

Paper money issued under Kublai Khan in the Yuan dynasty standardised trade across much of East Asia.

Common people could benefit from the increase in trade and movement, although they remained subject to military conscription, forced labour, or sudden demands from local governors.

Life remained difficult for many, especially in newly conquered areas or where rebellions had occurred. 

Mongol rule imposed order through military presence and strict legal codes.

Genghis Khan issued the Yassa, a set of laws that governed everything from theft and military conduct to the treatment of messengers and animals.

Although few original copies of the Yassa survive, historical accounts describe severe penalties for crimes such as murder, theft, or disobedience to authority.

Punishments often included death, mutilation, or exile, and they applied across social ranks.

Mongol justice emphasised loyalty, discipline, and respect for authority. 

The empire maintained order through fear and surveillance. In cities and towns, Mongol officials enforced laws with the support of local collaborators.

The yam system also helped detect rebellions or delays in communication because garrisons of Mongol troops remained stationed in key locations to respond to unrest quickly.

However, in regions where loyalty had been secured or where administration proved efficient, the Mongols allowed a degree of self-governance.

Islamic judges operated in Persia, and Chinese magistrates continued their work under Mongol supervision.

The stability allowed trade and travel to flourish, but any hint of rebellion triggered immediate and brutal responses. 

Over time, internal divisions, succession disputes, and the loss of military dominance weakened the empire.

The four major khanates grew apart after the death of Kublai Khan in 1294. Each began to follow its own interests and resisted efforts to restore central unity.

In the Golden Horde, the Black Death and rising Russian resistance damaged Mongol control.

In the Chagatai Khanate, infighting between regional factions undermined authority.

The Ilkhanate collapsed after the death of Abu Sa'id in 1335 due to a lack of an heir and growing power struggles between local nobles. 

In China, the Yuan Dynasty faced growing resentment from the majority Han population.

Natural disasters, high taxation, and inflation weakened the government. Rebellions began to spread in the 1340s, culminating in the rise of the Red Turban movement.

By 1368, the Ming Dynasty had driven the Mongols out of China, forcing them to retreat to the steppes.

Without strong leadership or unity, the remnants of the Mongol Empire fragmented into smaller khanates and successor states.

Though the empire disappeared, its influence continued in the trade routes, administrative practices, and cultural exchanges it had helped create across Eurasia.