The weapons and armour of the Aztec Empire

The Aztec Empire, led by the Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, relied heavily on military conquest to expand and maintain control over large parts of central Mexico.

Successful warriors gained prestige and valuable rewards, and captured enemies served as tribute, workers, or victims for ritual sacrifice.

Military training began in childhood, particularly for boys destined for the telpochcalli or calmecac schools.

The former prepared commoners for service as disciplined foot soldiers, while the latter focused on educating nobles for priesthood and leadership roles and training in administration, though it also included instruction in military command.

In both, boys learned discipline and combat skills and they explored the religious significance of war.

In preparation for expansion, Aztec officials sent envoys to demand submission from nearby city-states.

Those who accepted kept local rulers in place but paid regular tribute. Those who refused faced war.

The army assembled quickly and it drew professional warriors and ordinary people drafted into disciplined ranks that could number tens of thousands.

Before battle began, priests performed rituals to honour the gods and ensure success.

Aztec combat focused on the capture of enemies and avoided their deaths. 

Warriors gained fame through bravery and skill, and capturing prisoners proved both.

As a result, Aztec weapons and armour helped them to disable enemies while keepting them alive.

In fact, there were ritual conflicts known as xochiyaoyotl, or Flower Wars, which helped them to secure sacrificial victims. 

Among the most well-known Aztec weapons was the macuahuitl, a wooden club edged with razor-sharp obsidian blades.

Warriors wielded it with both hands and used it to slash or dismember. Spanish history writers claimed it could even decapitate a horse.

If this is true, it must have required considerable skill and strength to use effectively.

The obsidian edges were sharper than steel but quite brittle, which made them not reliable against metal armour or long fights. 

In addition to clubs, Aztec warriors carried the tepoztopilli, a polearm with a broad obsidian blade fixed to a long shaft.

This weapon allowed for stabbing and cutting from a safer distance. It proved to be especially useful in group fighting, where reach mattered more than speed.

Some warriors used it to hold off cavalry or to strike at less protected limbs. 

Stone-headed clubs, such as the cuauhololli, delivered crushing blows. When aiming to capture people, warriors used flint or obsidian daggers to wound and subdue rather than kill.

Elite fighters even carried customised weapons decorated with feathers or carvings, which showed their status and past military achievements. 

Cuāuhtli (Eagle) and Ocēlōtl (Jaguar) warriors, who belonged to elite battle groups, used highly decorated versions of the macuahuitl and wore animal-inspired uniforms.

These warriors linked performance in battle with public honour, and their weapons became extensions of their rank. 

During the opening moments of battle, Aztec warriors used ranged attacks to break enemy formations.

Archers fired tlahhuitolli, longbows made from flexible wood and strung with animal sinew.

Their arrows were tipped with obsidian or bone, which could wound lightly armoured enemies.

Some fired from behind protective lines, while others moved forward as the enemy closed in.

Although less effective against metal armour, large groups of arrows caused confusion and injuries among unarmoured opponents. 

To increase striking power, many warriors used the atlatl, a spear-thrower that hurled light darts with great speed.

The tlacochtli darts launched from this tool could pierce shields and strike targets beyond bow range.

Training with the atlatl, which had originally been inherited from earlier Mesoamerican cultures such as the Olmec and Maya, began early in a warrior's life, as it needed the right timing.

Warriors skilled in its use sometimes earned promotion within the army. 

In addition, some fighters hurled stones using slings. These slings were often woven from plant fibres, and could launch stones with enough force to break bones or hurt horses.

Slingers aimed for exposed areas such as faces or legs, and their attacks often caused a break in the enemy lines before the main assault.

Compared to melee weapons, ranged weapons offered fewer opportunities for honour.

This is because Aztec warfare placed a greater value on capturing opponents in hand-to-hand combat.

Nonetheless, archers and slingers helped shape the outcome of battles, and their role remained essential in softening resistance before the advance. 

Aztec warriors wore protective gear adapted to their environment and fighting style.

Quilted cotton armour, known as ichcahuipilli, was the primary layer. After they soaked it in saltwater and stitched it tightly, it absorbed impacts from clubs, arrows, and darts.

Lightweight and flexible, this armour allowed warriors to move quickly in combat while still offering moderate protection.

Some recent tests show that ichcahuipilli could even stop musket balls at long range, though this claim remains open to debate among experts.

Regardless, early European observers expressed surprise at the armour's effectiveness. 

On ceremonial occasions, high-ranking warriors wore cloaks and tunics made from animal hides or richly decorated fabrics.

These garments included symbols that identified the warrior’s order, achievements, or lineage.

While they offered little extra protection, they demonstrated a person's authority in order to inspirem their followers. 

In terms of head protection, wooden or leather helmets were carved or shaped into forms resembling animals.

Eagle warriors wore helmets shaped like birds’ heads, with beaks reaching over the brow, while Jaguar warriors used spotted designs with open jaws.

These helmets protected the skull and also helped to reinforce their elite identity. 

For additional defence, warriors carried chimalli, round shields made from reeds or wood and covered with leather, feathers, or cloth.

Some shields included decorative fringes or tassels designed to distract opponents or entangle their weapons.

The size and decoration of a shield depended upon a warrior’s status. Commoners carried plain shields, while nobles bore brightly coloured or feathered ones that displayed their accomplishments. 

Rather than encasing the body, Aztec armour prioritised movement and breathability.

This is because warriors had to pursue captives, perform actions, and retreat swiftly when needed.

Therefore, heavy gear would have slowed these manoeuvres and undermined their objectives. 

During the Spanish conquest of Mexico, Aztec weapons faced unfamiliar technology and tactics.

When Hernán Cortés landed in 1519, he brought steel swords, crossbows, muskets, cavalry, and metal armour.

At first, Aztec warriors engaged them using traditional tactics. In battles such as Centla and Cholula, they fought with macuahuitl, darts, and arrows to strike at the invaders. 

In contrast, the Spanish relied on disciplined formations and great firepower. Steel swords cut through light armour, and their own iron armour resisted nearly every local attack.

Even so, the Aztecs did not surrender easily. They changed tactics quickly, launching ambushes, using the terrain to their advantage, and strengthening their positions.

At the Siege of Tenochtitlan, from May to August 1521, they fought from rooftops, canals, and narrow causeways to force the Spanish into close combat and to isolate cavalry.

These confined spaces allowed Aztec weapons to be used more effectively, though they could not overcome the technological advantage of firearms and steel.

Both Aztec leaders, Cuauhtémoc and his predecessor, Cuitláhuac, resisted Spanish advances but died of disease before the final siege began. 

Although Aztec weapons performed well in confined spaces, they could not stop gunfire or pierce metal breastplates.

The introduction of horses shattered Aztec formations, and Spanish riders wielding lances caused confusion among foot soldiers.

To make matters worse, Spanish forces allied with tens of thousands of Tlaxcalan warriors, who brought their own weapons, tactics, and deep resentment of Aztec domination.

By the final siege, the combined Spanish-Tlaxcalan forces were estimated to number over 100,000. 

During prolonged fighting, Aztec reliance on capturing rather than killing enemies weakened their battle position.

Although their warriors fought with determination, they lacked the technology and tactical cohesion to repel an invasion that combined firearms, cavalry, and massed alliances. 

Despite defeat, the strength of Aztec weaponry left a lasting impression on Spanish chroniclers.

Figures such as Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Hernán Cortés himself recorded the effectively of obsidian blades and the strength of cotton armour.