From concubines to empresses: The power dynamics within ancient China's imperial harems

Ancient China's Imperial Harem system first took shape during the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, and gradually developed throughout the subsequent dynasties. 

It was created to provide a private and safe environment for the emperor's wives and concubines, who were women that were drawn from various noble families.

Their main role was to have and raise the emperor's children. 

By the Ming and Qing periods, when they lived in the Forbidden City in Beijing, harems held hundreds or even thousands of women, including the emperor’s female relatives, as well as a large staff of eunuchs and maidservants that kept the harem running. 

For example, during the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Hongwu kept a harem of more than 10,000 women, while Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty had about 2,000 concubines and consorts. 

The word 'harem' comes from the Arabic term for ‘forbidden’ or ‘sacred’. 

Most men were not allowed there, except for the emperor and eunuchs. 

However, the Imperial Harem had its own social system with its own ranks and customs. 

The emperor stood at the top of that system. Below him was the empress, who was the emperor's main wife and had the highest rank among the women. 

The empress usually came from a noble family and was expected to give birth to the next imperial heir. She also managed the harem and kept order among the women. 

Below the empress came the consorts and concubines. They had various titles and ranks that could change based on the emperor's favour if they gave birth to sons or due to the influence of their families. 

The harem included the emperor's mother, sisters and daughters, and they could hold real influence and affect court matters thanks to their personal connection to the emperor and empress. 

Alongside them, a large group of eunuchs and maidservants supported the harem day to day.

Eunuchs were castrated men and, over time, some of them gained real power, as they acted as go‑between for the women and the rest of the court. 

For instance, one famous example is Wei Zhongxian of the late Ming Dynasty. He used his position to control the court in the early 1600s and used it to remove his political rivals. 

Life within the Imperial Harem of ancient China was a world of its own. Many people think life there was all about comfort and leisure. However, the reality was often more difficult and demanding. 

The daily schedules of the women in the harem were carefully planned out. They would wake early for morning ceremonies, which often included offerings to their ancestors and the gods.

After that, they had breakfast and then took part in activities such as reading, writing, needlework, music, and dance. 

These activities formed part of the women’s training to improve their manners, grow their skills and prepare them for their potential roles in the court. 

Even though there were many women in the harem, the emperor paid attention to only a few at a time. 

A such, many concubines spent their days as they waited for a call from the emperor.

During these long waits, they often felt cut off from the court’s activities. This could lead to long days of loneliness for many women. 

Any interactions among the women were guided by strict etiquette that was based upon their particular positions in the ranking system. 

They had to show respect to those of higher status and had to be careful in their actions to avoid upsetting anyone or drawing unwanted notice from people in power who wanted to harm them. 

The women could form friendships and political alliances, but competition for the emperor’s attention often interfered with many of these relationships. 

The Imperial Harem played a surprisingly significant part in the political life of ancient China. 

Since they were the starting point for future emperors’ life, they were the centre of some political deals, where power was negotiated. 

This was due to the fact that the women of the harem, especially those of higher rank, had direct access to the emperor’s ear. In many cases, this could allow them to use their sway to change the emperor’s choices on state matters, help their friends get important roles, or work against their rivals. 

This often took the form of quiet persuasion at intimate moments, or sharing of private information heard within the harem’s walls. 

The harem was also a place where political partnerships were formed. However, political intrigue did not always have good outcomes, since the harem could become a source of rivalry and power fights, especially when politics were unstable or there was uncertainty about who would rule next. 

Groups formed between the women might take part in secret plots, and even resort to assassinations to achieve their aims, or place their own children in important positions of power. 

One of the most important women was the Empress Wu Zetian, who was the only woman to rule China as emperor in her own right. 

She began as a concubine of Emperor Taizong in the Tang Dynasty. Later, she rose to power when she worked closely with Emperor Gaozong and she took the throne after his death and founded the Zhou Dynasty. 

Another key figure was Empress Dowager Cixi, who led the Chinese government for almost fifty years in the late Qing Dynasty. 

She started as a low-ranking concubine and became powerful after her son, Emperor Xianfeng, was born. 

When Xianfeng died, she was regent for her young son and later her nephew. During these regencies, she was the one who held real power behind the scenes, but use of power was criticised by many people.

Because of that, she ordered the deaths of those she saw as threats. There was also the Empress Xiaozhuang Wen, who was also known as Bumbutai Borjigit.

She was important in the early Qing Dynasty as the grandmother of Emperor Kangxi, one of China’s longest-serving rulers.

She was a crucial factor in his early education and she helped keep the dynasty stable in its early years. 

Another powerful person who rose up from the harme was the Consort Yang, or Yang Guifei. She was one of the Four Beauties of ancient China and a favourite of Emperor Xuanzong in the Tang Dynasty. 

She had considerable person influence over the emperor: an influence that led some to say her relationship with him caused the An Lushan Rebellion, which became one of history’s deadliest revolts. 

She died during the rebellion but, over time, became a well-known figure in Chinese stories and art. 

The Imperial Harem gradually began to lose influence in the late Qing Dynasty due to growing political problems, and the introduction of new Western social ideas into China. 

The late Qing Dynasty was struggling with corruption, uprisings and foreign invasions, all which reduced the court’s power and that of the harem. 

Meanwhile, the harem was full of these power struggles which damaged its reputation. 

The lavish lifestyle of the harem was openly critiqued in comparison to the hardships of ordinary people. 

By this point in history, Confucian beliefs that had supported the harem were openly questioned and the modern women’s rights movement, which appeared in the late 1800s and early 1900s, challenged traditional female roles, calling for women to have education and freedom to make their own choices. 

Exposure to these views led people to rethink the harem and its role in a modern China. 

The harem finally ended when the Qing Dynasty fell, and the Republic of China began in 1912. 

The new regime rejected many old imperial systems, including the harem. 

The last women of the harem received pensions and were allowed to leave the Forbidden City, which ended an institution that had existed for centuries.