How the Philippines fell to the Japanese in WWII

During December 1941, the American force in the Philippines included regular U.S. Army soldiers, veteran Philippine Scouts, and the newly raised Philippine Commonwealth Army.

Although General MacArthur had requested additional troops earlier that year, only limited numbers of soldiers and equipment arrived.

Most Filipino units lacked modern weapons and received only basic military training before they could engage the enemy.

At the start of the war, the combined force included about 20,000 to 22,000 American troops and over 100,000 Filipino soldiers, many of whom carried rifles from the First World War. 

In the early hours of 8 December, Japanese bombers attacked Clark Field and other air bases on Luzon.

After American commanders received news of the Pearl Harbor attack, they did not launch an early air patrol.

Many aircraft were destroyed on the ground, and the Far East Air Force lost much of its combat ability during the first two days of the war.

The Japanese 5th and 11th Air Fleets launched planned strikes from bases in Formosa, targeting Nichols Field, Iba Airfield, and other key bases.

More than 100 American aircraft were destroyed in the opening days. 

Along the northern and eastern coasts of Luzon, Japanese troops began landing between 10 and 22 December.

The major landing occurred at Lingayen Gulf under the command of General Masaharu Homma, who led the 14th Army.

Filipino and American forces tried to hold defences, yet they lacked the weapons and coordination needed to resist effectively.

Japanese units, which were supported by aircraft and naval bombardment, moved inland with frightening speed. 

On 26 December, General MacArthur declared Manila an open city to prevent further damage.

The civilian population withdrew in large numbers, and military forces fell back into the Bataan Peninsula.

Japanese bombers, however, kept striking the capital despite its this. To prepare for a last stand, engineers disabled bridges and supply depots to slow the enemy’s advance.

War Plan Orange-3, long prepared as the final plan, led the decision to group the defence of Luzon in Bataan and on Corregidor Island. 

At the base of the peninsula, more than 75,000 American and Filipino soldiers gathered to delay the Japanese and await help from the United States.

After MacArthur moved to Australia on 11 March 1942, General Jonathan Wainwright took overall command of U.S. forces in the Philippines, while General Edward P. King led operations on Bataan. 

During the early weeks of the battle, defenders held their ground against repeated Japanese attacks.

Infantry divisions dug trenches and built makeshift bunkers along key ridges.

Supplies, however, fell rapidly. Soldiers suffered from malnutrition, and field hospitals filled with wounded troops who lacked medicine or clean bandages.

Insects, heat, and unclean water brought outbreaks of malaria and dysentery. By March, rations had dropped to fewer than 1,000 calories per day, and many units struggled to continue. 

In early February, Japanese additional troops arrived to support General Homma’s campaign.

New artillery units and fresh infantry battalions strengthened the assault.

Defenders managed to stop several attacks, but heavy enemy firepower steadily pushed the front lines southward.

As food ran out and ammunition thinned, morale began to collapse. 

On 3 April, once Japanese forces completed their preparations, they launched their final offensive.

Artillery fire hit defences before infantry began planned attacks. Troops, too weak to fight in many areas, fell back in disarray.

Facing certain destruction, General King surrendered the Bataan force on 9 April.

His decision saved many lives, though it led to the well-known Bataan Death March, where prisoners of war endured over 100 kilometres of forced travel in searing heat.

Estimates suggest that between 5,000 and 10,000 Allied POWs died along the road due to beatings, exhaustion, and execution by Japanese guards and the feared Kempetai. 

Near the mouth of Manila Bay, Corregidor Island became the last organised centre of Allied resistance.

As Japanese forces moved artillery into place, Corregidor’s defenders prepared for bombardment.

The garrison, which included roughly 11,000 men, relied on the Malinta Tunnel to house command centres, storage rooms, and field hospitals.

Built in the 1930s by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the tunnel offered partial protection from the coming attack. 

Beginning on 24 April, Japanese guns began a sustained bombardment that grew heavier each day.

Air raids followed each barrage, and buildings collapsed under the weight of sustained fire.

Tunnels shielded the wounded and civilians, but resources grew scarce. Food rations fell to starvation levels, and medical care became almost impossible to provide. 

Late on 5 May, Japanese forces launched a sea assault on Corregidor’s northeastern beaches.

Assault troops landed in darkness, pushing quickly toward the high ground.

American and Filipino defenders used rifles, grenades, and limited artillery, yet they could not stop the Japanese beachhead.

Disorder spread across the island as communication systems failed and defensive units retreated to secondary positions. 

On the morning of 6 May, General Wainwright agreed to surrender as well. His decision was made to prevent further bloodshed and also included an order to other American units throughout the archipelago to cease fighting.

Resistance groups refused to surrender and continued fighting for years, but Japanese forces declared full control over the Philippines after Corregidor fell. 

In early 1944, American planners looked again at the Philippines as a strategic target.

General MacArthur, now in command of Allied operations in the Southwest Pacific, insisted on returning.

His argument combined military necessity with his promise to the Filipino people. 

After a series of victories on multiple islands in the Central Pacific, Allied forces gathered at Leyte Gulf.

On 20 October 1944, MacArthur returned to Philippine soil alongside President Sergio Osmeña, and his arrival was considered to be the start of the liberation campaign.

American troops waded ashore under enemy fire, and fierce fighting followed as Japanese defenders tried to prevent the loss of Leyte. 

Several days later, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched a counterattack. The Battle of Leyte Gulf, fought from 23 to 26 October, became the largest naval battle of the war.

Japanese warships tried to disrupt the American landings, but poor coordination and American naval advantage led to their defeat.

Key engagements included the battles of Sibuyan Sea, Surigao Strait, Cape Engaño, and Samar.

The Japanese fleet suffered severe losses in ships, aircraft, and trained men. For the first time, kamikaze attacks were used on a large scale, following initial missions launched earlier in October 1944 during the Leyte campaign. 

After securing Leyte, Allied commanders moved their focus to Luzon. On 9 January 1945, American forces landed at Lingayen Gulf.

Japanese defenders launched a tough resistance campaign in the mountainous interior, but their efforts could not stop the American advance toward Manila.

During February, the capital city became the site of one of the war’s bloodiest city battles.

Japanese naval troops under Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi ignored orders to retreat and turned the city into a battleground.

Street-to-street combat and heavy shelling destroyed entire districts and killed over 100,000 civilians in what became known as the Manila Massacre. 

Elsewhere in the group of islands, American and Filipino forces fought to clear Japanese garrisons from Mindanao, Palawan, Cebu, and other islands.

Local resistance groups guided U.S. forces and provided valuable info. Important organisations, including the Hukbalahap under Luis Taruc, played a key role in disrupting Japanese operations and aiding Allied advances. 

After months of operations, Allied forces restored control over the Philippines.

Although the campaign restored Filipino sovereignty, the human and material cost of the conflict was high.

Cities lay in ruins, over 1.1 million Filipinos had died, and roads and buildings were destroyed.

For many, the end of Japanese occupation began the long road to post-war independence.