The Six-Day War: Why Israel's blitzkrieg offensive still casts a long shadow over today's peace efforts

The Middle East, in the years leading up to 1967, was a region rife with tension and geopolitical maneuvering.

The establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 had already set the stage for conflict, with the Arab-Israeli War, often referred to as the War of Independence or Nakba, resulting in an armistice in 1949.

This armistice delineated temporary borders, known as the Green Line, but did not resolve the underlying territorial disputes or the status of Palestinian refugees.

Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, skirmishes and confrontations were frequent along the borders between Israel and its Arab neighbors.

Particularly contentious was Israel's relationship with Egypt. The 1956 Suez Crisis, where Israel, in collusion with Britain and France, invaded the Sinai Peninsula in response to Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal, further exacerbated tensions.

Though the crisis ended with a withdrawal under international pressure, it set a precedent for military engagements in the region.

Adding to the volatile mix was the rise of Arab nationalism, championed by Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser.

His vision of a united Arab front against Israel gained traction, especially after the formation of the United Arab Republic, a short-lived political union between Egypt and Syria in 1958.

By the mid-1960s, with Cold War dynamics in play, both the USA and USSR were deeply involved in the region, supplying arms and extending political support to their respective allies.

The immediate spark for the war began in May 1967. Egyptian forces started amassing in the Sinai Peninsula around May 15, signaling a potential military initiative.

This move was followed by the closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping on May 22, a direct challenge to Israel, which had previously declared such an action as a cause for war.

The defense pacts signed between Egypt, Jordan, and Iraq further heightened the sense of an impending multi-front conflict.

Syria, with its longstanding border disputes with Israel, was also gearing up for war.

As diplomatic efforts faltered, and with the region becoming a powder keg of military build-ups and nationalist fervor, the outbreak of hostilities became almost inevitable.

Israel entered the conflict with a sense of existential threat. The young nation, established in 1948, had faced hostilities from its neighbors since its inception.

By 1967, Israel had developed a formidable military, with a doctrine emphasizing rapid mobilization and pre-emptive strikes.

Leading Israel during this critical juncture was Prime Minister Levi Eshkol, though it was the Defense Minister, Moshe Dayan, and Chief of Staff, Yitzhak Rabin, who played pivotal roles in the military decisions and operations of the war.

Egypt, known then as the United Arab Republic, was the most prominent member of the Arab coalition.

President Gamal Abdel Nasser was the face of Arab nationalism and had positioned himself as the champion of the Palestinian cause and the primary adversary of Israel.

His decision to close the Straits of Tiran and the subsequent military buildup in Sinai were critical events leading up to the war.

Jordan was led by King Hussein, who had initially been hesitant to enter into a conflict with Israel.

However, under the influence of Nasser and the pressure of the pan-Arab sentiment, Jordan entered into a defense pact with Egypt.

The Jordanian-controlled West Bank and East Jerusalem became central theaters of the war, with significant implications for the future of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Syria had long-standing territorial disputes with Israel, particularly over the water-rich Golan Heights.

The Ba'athist regime in Syria, with its strong pan-Arab ideology, had been involved in skirmishes with Israel in the years leading up to the war.

The Syrian front during the Six-Day War was crucial, as the battles there determined control over the strategically significant Golan Heights.

Lastly, Iraq also played a role in the conflict, albeit a more limited one compared to the other major combatants.

Under President Abdul Rahman Arif, Iraq sent troops to support the Jordanian front and entered into the defense pact with Egypt and Jordan.

The war began on June 5, 1967, with Operation Focus, a surprise Israeli airstrike that targeted Egyptian airfields.

Within hours, the Israeli Air Force had achieved air superiority by effectively neutralizing the majority of the Egyptian Air Force on the ground.

This initial success provided Israel with a significant advantage for the rest of the conflict.

In the southern front, the Sinai Campaign saw Israeli forces rapidly advancing against the Egyptian army.

By June 8, Israeli troops had reached the Suez Canal, having secured the entire Sinai Peninsula.

The speed and efficiency of the Israeli advance were notable, with armored brigades under the command of generals like Ariel Sharon and Avraham Yoffe playing crucial roles.

To the east, the Battle of Jerusalem and the West Bank began with Jordanian artillery shelling targets in West Jerusalem on June 5.

In response, Israeli forces launched a counteroffensive. By June 7, Israeli paratroopers had entered and secured the Old City of Jerusalem, reuniting the city under Israeli control.

Concurrently, other Israeli units pushed into the West Bank, capturing key cities like Jericho, Bethlehem, and Hebron.

By the end of June 7, the entire West Bank was under Israeli control.

The northern front saw intense fighting in the Golan Heights Campaign. On June 9, after days of sporadic artillery exchanges and skirmishes, Israeli forces launched a major assault against Syrian positions in the Golan Heights.

Facing stiff resistance, Israeli troops, with the support of air strikes, managed to break through Syrian defenses.

By June 10, the last day of the war, Israel had captured the entire Golan Heights, providing it with a strategic vantage point overlooking Syrian territory.

The Six-Day War, while primarily a regional conflict, drew significant attention and reactions from the international community.

The rapid escalation and the potential for superpower involvement made it a focal point of global diplomacy during those tense days in June 1967.

The United Nations, which had previously played a role in the region through the establishment of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Sinai following the 1956 Suez Crisis, found itself in a challenging position.

As hostilities loomed, Egypt demanded the withdrawal of UNEF troops from Sinai, effectively removing a buffer between Israeli and Egyptian forces.

The UN complied, revealing the limitations of international peacekeeping efforts in the face of determined national interests.

The superpowers, the USA and USSR, closely monitored the situation. The United States, while sympathetic to Israel's security concerns, initially urged restraint.

President Lyndon B. Johnson, preoccupied with the Vietnam War, was keen to avoid another conflict that might draw in the superpowers.

However, as the war unfolded and Israel's victory became apparent, the U.S. stance shifted to one of ensuring Israel's gains would be recognized in post-war negotiations.

The Soviet Union, on the other hand, had been a key supporter of Arab states, particularly Egypt and Syria.

Moscow was caught off guard by the rapidity of Israel's victory. While the USSR condemned Israel's actions and called for a ceasefire, it stopped short of direct military intervention, despite some initial mobilization.

The Soviets were keenly aware of the risks of confrontation with the U.S. in the volatile Middle East.

Other non-combatant nations also voiced their opinions. Many non-aligned countries, especially those with significant Muslim populations, expressed support for the Arab states and condemned Israel's actions.

In contrast, some Western nations, viewing the conflict through the lens of the Cold War, were more understanding of Israel's position.

In the aftermath of the war, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 242, which emphasized the "inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war" and called for the "withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict."

This resolution became a cornerstone of future peace negotiations in the region.

One of the most immediate outcomes was the significant territorial expansion by Israel.

In just six days, Israel had captured the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.

These territorial gains more than tripled the size of the pre-war Israeli state.

While this expansion provided Israel with strategic depth and defensible borders, it also brought large populations of Palestinians under Israeli control, setting the stage for future tensions and conflicts.

The war had a profound impact on the Palestinian people. With the West Bank and Gaza Strip now under Israeli control, the Palestinian territories were effectively split, complicating efforts towards Palestinian statehood.

The war also led to a new wave of Palestinian refugees, further exacerbating an already sensitive issue that had its roots in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

For the Arab states, the war was a humbling experience. The swift defeat challenged the rhetoric of Arab unity and the promises of leaders like Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser.

The loss led to significant introspection and changes in leadership and strategy.

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), under Yasser Arafat, gained prominence in the years following the war, advocating for Palestinian self-determination and statehood.

This shift culminated in events like the Black September conflict in Jordan in 1970 and the subsequent relocation of the PLO to Lebanon.

In Egypt, the war set the stage for Anwar Sadat's rise to power and his eventual overtures for peace with Israel, culminating in the Camp David Accords and the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty.

The war also had broader geopolitical implications. The superpowers, while managing to avoid direct confrontation during the war, were drawn deeper into the politics of the Middle East.

The U.S. solidified its support for Israel, while the Soviet Union deepened its ties with Arab states, further entrenching the Cold War dynamics in the region.

In the months following the war, the Arab League convened in Khartoum, Sudan, and issued what came to be known as the Khartoum Resolution.

The resolution is famously associated with the "Three No's": No peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, no negotiations with it.

This stance, while reflective of the immediate post-war sentiment, would evolve over time as realities on the ground and shifts in global politics influenced the strategies of Middle Eastern nations.

The Six-Day War, like many pivotal moments in history, has been the subject of numerous controversies and debates that persist to this day.

One of the primary debates centers around the initiation of the conflict. Was Israel's strike on June 5, 1967, a pre-emptive act of self-defense in the face of an imminent Arab attack, or was it an aggressive move to seize territory and neutralize potential threats?

While Israel argued that the military build-up by Arab states, especially Egypt's actions in the Sinai, left it with no choice but to act, critics contend that there was no immediate threat of an Arab invasion, and Israel's actions were opportunistic.

The war's outcome and Israel's subsequent control over vast territories have also been contentious.

The establishment of Israeli settlements in the occupied territories, especially the West Bank, has been a significant point of contention.

While Israel views these settlements as a legitimate exercise of its rights, most of the international community, citing conventions like the Fourth Geneva Convention, considers them illegal.

The settlements have not only been a diplomatic issue but have also had profound implications for the lives of Palestinians living in the occupied territories.

The status of Jerusalem, particularly East Jerusalem, which was captured from Jordan during the war, remains one of the most sensitive and debated issues. Israel's decision to annex East Jerusalem and declare the entire city its undivided capital has been met with international criticism.

For Palestinians, East Jerusalem holds significant political, cultural, and religious importance, and its status is central to any future peace negotiations.

The treatment of prisoners of war (POWs) during and after the conflict has also been a subject of debate.

Allegations of mistreatment, and in some cases, the execution of POWs, particularly by Egyptian and Israeli forces, have been sources of contention, with both sides accusing the other of violations.