The Battle of Trafalgar: The greatest sea battle of the Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon Bonaparte gained power as First Consul of France after the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799, and he declared himself Emperor of the French in 1804.

His armies achieved victory over several coalitions of European powers, which expanded French control across the continent.

Britain was the only major power that refused to submit, and its survival depended on the strength of the Royal Navy. 

Soon after the Treaty of Amiens in 1802 temporarily halted the war, fighting resumed in 1803.

At Boulogne, Napoleon assembled a vast invasion force and prepared thousands of flat-bottomed boats to carry troops across the English Channel.

He believed that a decisive naval victory could clear the way for an invasion of Britain.

However, the French navy lacked experience after years of blockade, so Napoleon relied on a combined fleet of French and Spanish ships to gain temporary control of the Channel. 

Meanwhile, British leaders understood that the Royal Navy had to prevent this at any cost.

Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger directed enormous resources toward maintaining the blockade of French ports, which restricted French training and movement at sea.

Admiral Lord Nelson, already famous for victories at the Nile in 1798 and Copenhagen in 1801, became the commander Britain trusted to deliver another success.

Nelson sailed from Portsmouth in September 1805 and joined the fleet off Cadiz to oversee final preparations.

As months passed without a French breakthrough, Napoleon’s frustration grew because his invasion plans stalled. 

The British fleet that fought at Trafalgar included 27 ships of the line, supported by several frigates and smaller vessels.

Many of these ships, such as HMS Victory and HMS Temeraire, carried more than 100 guns and were manned by hundreds of sailors.

British crews fired their cannons faster and more accurately than their enemies thanks to their extensive training.

Admiral Lord Nelson commanded the fleet from HMS Victory, and Vice Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood led the second column from HMS Royal Sovereign.

Captain Thomas Hardy, Nelson’s flag captain, remained at his side throughout the battle. 

At the same time, the French and Spanish assembled 33 ships of the line. Vice Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve commanded the combined fleet aboard the French flagship Bucentaure.

French crews, weakened by the blockade, lacked the experience of their British opponents.

Spanish ships, including the formidable Santísima Trinidad, were large and heavily armed, but their crews worked more slowly and fired less effectively.

Villeneuve reluctantly sailed from Cadiz on 19 October 1805 after learning that Napoleon intended to replace him with Admiral Rosily. 

On paper, the combined fleet appeared stronger. However, command was divided between French and Spanish officers, and many crews had little experience of battle.

For years, British sailors had enforced the blockade and engaged in frequent skirmishes at sea, which gave them a level of skill and confidence that their opponents could not match. 

The battle began around midday on 21 October when Nelson advanced in two columns directly toward the enemy line.

In his plan, the British would break through the line at right angles, which exposed his ships to heavy fire but allowed them to engage at close range once they passed between the enemy vessels.

The tactic placed the leading British ships in great danger as they endured broadsides without being able to return fire.

Before the engagement, Nelson had met with his captains and outlined his bold strategy in a discussion that became known as the “Nelson Touch.” 

At the head of one column, Collingwood’s HMS Royal Sovereign became the first ship to cut through the line, and began raking the Spanish ship Santa Ana with cannon fire.

Soon after, Nelson’s HMS Victory followed and steered between Villeneuve’s Bucentaure and the French ship Redoutable.

In close combat, the ships exchanged broadsides at point-blank range, which inflicted terrible casualties on both sides. 

Eventually, the British columns split the enemy fleet into smaller, isolated groups.

Many French and Spanish ships became trapped, and their slower rate of fire left them unable to match British gunnery.

Late in the afternoon, Villeneuve’s fleet collapsed into disorder as British ships captured vessel after vessel while others fled.

By the end of the day, 18 French and Spanish ships had been taken or destroyed.

Enemy casualties included about 3,200 killed, more than 2,500 wounded, and approximately 8,000 captured. 

During the fighting, a French marksman aboard Redoutable managed to shoot Nelson in the shoulder.

The musket ball lodged in his spine, and he was carried below deck, but the wound proved fatal despite the efforts of the ship’s surgeon.

Nelson lived long enough to know that Britain had won a famous victory and reportedly said, “Thank God I have done my duty,” before dying at 4:30 pm.

British casualties amounted to around 1,700 killed and wounded. Finally, a violent storm struck the area soon after the battle, sinking many of the captured ships and killing additional prisoners. 

Admiral Nelson had a reputation for aggressive tactics and motivating leadership.

Before the battle, he sent the famous signal: “England expects that every man will do his duty,” which lifted the spirits of his crews.

His decision to attack in two columns instead of the standard line-ahead formation allowed the British fleet to strike at close range where its better gunnery proved most effective. 

On the day of battle, Nelson refused to hide below deck or remove the decorations from his uniform, which made him an obvious target for enemy marksmen.

After his death, sailors preserved his body in a cask that initially contained brandy and later spirits of wine so that he could receive a hero’s funeral in Britain.

His remains arrived in London in early January 1806, and on 9 January he received a state funeral at St Paul’s Cathedral attended by thousands of mourners.

His tactical brilliance and personal sacrifice made him known as one of Britain’s greatest naval leaders. 

For Napoleon, the defeat at Trafalgar destroyed any realistic chance of invading Britain.

The combined French and Spanish fleets suffered disastrous losses that left Britain in control of the seas for the remainder of the Napoleonic Wars.

Napoleon reacted with fury when he learned of the disaster and he dismissed Villeneuve from command.

After Trafalgar, Napoleon focused his efforts on land campaigns, winning major victories at Ulm and Austerlitz later in 1805, but his inability to defeat Britain at sea permanently limited his strategic options. 

Across Europe, Britain’s naval supremacy allowed the blockade of French ports to continue, which limited French trade and restricted access to vital supplies.

It also secured Britain’s global trade routes and preserved the security of its overseas empire, and boosted public morale at a time when fears of invasion remained high.

In the years that followed, British naval power faced no serious challenge. The Royal Navy became the leading force on the oceans, and Trafalgar became cemented in the national memory as a key moment of naval history.