Zenobia: The rebel queen who defied Rome

Zenobia was born into the nobility of Palmyra around the middle of the third century and received a broad education that showed the many cultures of her city.

Most modern historians generally estimate her birth between AD 225 and 240, based on the age of her son and her reported involvement in politics by the late 260s.

Ancient sources referred to her as Julia Aurelia Zenobia and claimed she descended from the Ptolemaic line of Cleopatra VII, a claim probably meant to bolster her right to rule.

According to the Historia Augusta, she reportedly spoke Greek, Aramaic, Latin, and Egyptian, and had reportedly read widely in philosophy, history, and poetry. 

Palmyra’s location in the Syrian desert made it essential to long-distance trade between the Roman world and the East, and its wealth came mainly from taxes on caravans that passed through its gates, and the protection that the city provided.

The city’s elites managed their relationship with Rome carefully by presenting themselves as loyal clients and largely maintaining internal self-rule.

As the daughter of a leading family, Zenobia would likely have grown up in an environment that demanded diplomatic skill reinforced by military awareness and a practical grasp of Roman political customs.

During the 250s AD, Zenobia married Lucius Septimius Odaenathus, a Palmyrene aristocrat who had established himself as a military leader loyal to Rome.

After Emperor Valerian was captured by the Persians at the Battle of Edessa in AD 260, Odaenathus led a counterattack that drove the Sasanian army back across the Euphrates and helped to restore Roman control of the eastern frontier.

Odaenathus also bore the title Dux Romanorum and effectively acted as ruler in the East after Valerian’s capture, although he never officially claimed the title of emperor.

As a reward, Emperor Gallienus granted him the title Corrector Totius Orientis, placing him in command of the entire eastern half of the empire.

Zenobia was his queen and likely played a key role in court politics and acted as a guardian of her son Vaballathus, whom she likely intended to succeed his father.

By consolidating power around her family, she created a royal court that merged local traditions with Roman institutions.

She appeared alongside her husband in inscriptions and coinage that had regularly shown her influence in public life.

Zenobia responded by taking control of the court and proclaiming her son king since Odaenathus, as his elder son had been assassinated in AD 267 under circumstances that remain uncertain, possibly due to a family feud or political conspiracy.

She ruled as regent since Vaballathus, who was still a child, and all power passed through her hands, and she moved quickly to establish effective authority over the army and the provinces.

After she had secured her position, Zenobia began to expand rapidly Palmyra’s influence into regions outside Syria.

In AD 269, she sent her general Zabdas to invade Egypt, where Roman authority had largely collapsed into disorder.

Taking control of Egypt seriously threatened Rome’s food supply since the campaign had succeeded rapidly, and Egypt passed under Palmyrene control.

Egypt’s grain supply was crucial to feeding the population of Rome, which made its control critically important.

Zenobia then launched further operations into parts of Arabia Petraea and into Anatolia and she gradually absorbed territory that Roman governors had only loosely managed.

Soon after, her regime issued coinage from Alexandria and Antioch that depicted Vaballathus with imperial titles.

Coins issued during her rule occasionally bore the inscription Septimia Zenobia Augusta and showed her wearing imperial diadems typically reserved for empresses.

She authorised inscriptions that showed her authority, and some later sources portrayed her as queen of the East, a designation that likely indicated her perceived status rather than an official title.

She continued to publicly present her rule as a continuation of Rome’s imperial traditions and operated without Roman oversight.

She placed local officials in administrative roles, ensured the loyalty of tribal allies, and secured control of key trade routes.

Palmyra’s tax systems significantly expanded under her leadership, and she oversaw the appointment of governors in newly acquired regions.

Since she reportedly spoke the languages of her subjects and understood the customs of the various peoples under her rule, she adapted her political language to suit each audience and strengthened her control.

Ancient writers described her as serious and focused, and she showed a clear interest in learning, and she often attended discussions on law and philosophy.

According to the Historia Augusta, she consulted regularly with scholars such as Cassius Longinus and showed an interest in the histories of both the Greeks and the Romans.

Cassius Longinus was her chief advisor and a prominent Greek philosopher and rhetorician who had taught in Athens and brought Stoic ideas to her court.

She rewarded military service with land and titles, and she maintained the support of the eastern provincial elites by respecting local customs and promoting members of their families to high office.

Her regime managed supply lines across desert terrain, protected merchant routes, and provided a degree of stability in an area that had suffered repeated invasions.

Since the Roman Empire had largely abandoned this region during the Crisis of the Third Century, her ability to maintain order gave her some political credibility among city councils and military garrisons.

Aurelian came to power in AD 270 and soon began a campaign to recover the eastern provinces.

After he had stabilised the Danube frontier and had defeated rival claimants in the west, he marched into Asia Minor to confront Zenobia directly.

By AD 270, Zenobia controlled Egypt (Aegyptus), Arabia Petraea, and much of Asia Minor, including regions such as Galatia and Cappadocia.

In AD 272, his army advanced toward Antioch, where he defeated Zenobia’s general Zabdas at the Battle of Immae, where he used a tactical feigned retreat that broke the Palmyrene cavalry.

Following that victory, Aurelian pursued her forces to Emesa, where another battle ended in Roman success.

At Emesa, Aurelian’s legions may have numbered between 30,000 and 50,000, probably outmatching the Palmyrene forces, which relied heavily on cavalry and archers.

Zenobia was unable to stop the Roman advance and ultimately retreated to Palmyra, and prepared for siege.

Aurelian surrounded the city and cut off its supplies, which prevented outside aid.

In a final attempt to preserve her authority, she attempted to flee to Persia to seek support from King Bahram I, but Roman troops had caught and captured her near the Euphrates River.

After her capture, Zenobia was taken to Emesa and questioned by Aurelian.

Roman sources differ on her response: some claimed she tried to blame her generals and advisors, and others described her as defiant.

According to the Historia Augusta, Aurelian reportedly said of Zenobia, ‘She marched with her generals, drank with her officers, and governed like an emperor of Rome.’

Aurelian, who had used severe measures in dealing with rivals, chose instead to spare her and use her as a symbol of his victory.

She was paraded through the streets in golden chains, where she walked behind the emperor’s chariot during his triumph in AD 274.

Sources such as Zosimus and Zonaras suggest she was granted a villa at Tibur (modern Tivoli) and lived in some comfort, possibly enjoying privileges similar to a Roman matron.

According to some accounts, she may have married a Roman noble and remained in Italy for the rest of her life.

Aurelian returned to Palmyra, razed the city, executed its leaders, and formally annexed the territory, reducing it from a semi-autonomous client to a Roman province.

Many of its monuments fell into ruin, and its trade routes declined. Zenobia’s empire disappeared within five years, but her name frequently continued to appear in later histories, poems, and legends as an example of a ruler who had nearly succeeded in founding a separate eastern empire.