The ancient Roman history of London

Long before Roman troops marched into Britain, people had already occupied the area around the River Thames for thousands of years.

Neolithic activity, dated as early as 4000 BC, is evident in the discovery of flint tools, animal bones, and pottery fragments.

These objects were found along the riverbanks and suggest use of the land at certain times by nomadic groups that fished, hunted, and gathered food along the floodplains. 

By the late Bronze Age, sometime around 1000 BC, more stable settlements had appeared along the Thames.

Archaeologists uncovered the remains of roundhouses, wooden platforms, and trackways, especially in areas such as Vauxhall and Southwark, which point to year-round human activity.

As communities grew, they began to cultivate crops and manage livestock, relying on the river for food as well as for transport and communication. 

During the Iron Age, which began around 800 BC, larger tribal societies ruled the region.

Among the most powerful groups were the Trinovantes and the Catuvellauni, who established hillforts, built boundary ditches, and created networks of trade.

Their closeness to the Thames allowed them to control travel along the river and influence surrounding territories.

Although no large Iron Age town occupied the exact site of future Londinium, the location already held clear geographical and strategic advantages by the time Rome set its sights on Britain. 

After Emperor Claudius authorised the invasion of Britain in AD 43, Roman commanders quickly secured the southeastern regions of the island and founded several military forts.

One of their early capitals, Camulodunum, which suffered destruction during Boudica’s revolt and lacked the natural defences and practical benefits provided by a riverside settlement.

Roman planners identified the northern bank of the Thames as a more suitable location due to its wide channel, deep mooring capacity, and natural crossing point. 

By around AD 47, Roman engineers had constructed a wooden bridge over the Thames, which enabled troops, merchants, and civilians to cross safely and transport goods.

The bridge, which some archaeologists estimate may have extended nearly 100 metres, is considered to be the beginning of Londinium’s rapid development because, within two decades, Londinium had attracted merchants from Gaul, soldiers discharged from the legions, local Britons seeking work, and officials in charge of taxes and law.

Markets sprang up near the bridge, and imported goods such as wine, olive oil, garum, and glassware moved into warehouses along the riverbanks, while exports included wool, metals, and slaves. 

As Londinium expanded, it gained a forum and basilica. The basilica was built in the early second century and measured around 100 by 50 metres, which meant that it was among the largest of its kind north of the Alps.

The construction of stone buildings showed that Romans intended to create a permanent urban centre.

By the early second century, the town had grown into a municipium, a known self-governing Roman city with certain rights and responsibilities under imperial law.

At its height, Londinium covered more than 120 hectares and may have supported a population of between 30,000 and 60,000 people, based on varying estimates.

It also became the capital of the province of Britannia Superior after the provincial division under Hadrian, replacing Camulodunum sometime in the early second century.

Defensive walls were first erected between AD 190 and 225, and they enclosed the city to help protect it during later invasions and periods of unrest.

Roads such as Watling Street and Ermine Street connected Londinium to the wider province, which would have linked it with military forts and rural estates. 

In AD 60 or 61, Londinium suffered one of the most destructive events in its early history.

Boudica, the queen of the Iceni, led a violent rebellion against Roman occupation after imperial officials confiscated her property and subjected her family to public humiliation.

Her forces, which included thousands of warriors from several eastern tribes, first razed Camulodunum and then turned south towards Londinium. 

At the time of the rebellion, Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was campaigning in Mona (modern Anglesey) against the Druids.

With few troops available to defend Londinium, he decided to evacuate the town and regroup his forces elsewhere.

Those who remained in the city faced a brutal fate. Tacitus wrote that the rebels killed anyone who failed to flee and reduced the settlement to smouldering ruins.

He estimated that as many as 70,000 to 80,000 people were killed during the revolt, though modern historians believe this figure may be exaggerated. 

Modern archaeological excavations have uncovered a widespread layer of scorched clay, broken pottery, and ash, now referred to as the “Boudican destruction layer.”

Found in several areas of central London, it provides physical evidence of the city’s destruction during the revolt.

After Suetonius eventually defeated Boudica in a pitched battle, Roman authorities rebuilt Londinium using more sturdy materials, such as stone and concrete, and improved its defences.

As the fourth century progressed, pressure on the Roman Empire from external enemies and internal instability affected the governance of distant provinces.

In Britain, the Roman army faced increasing attacks from Pictish, Saxon, and Irish raiders.

Imperial forces attempted to reinforce their position, and local leaders continued to issue coinage and repair defensive structures, but the strain on resources grew severe. 

By the early fifth century, the Roman army had gradually withdrawn from Britain, and no further reinforcements arrived from the continent.

Emperor Honorius, who was preoccupied with defending Italy from Visigothic invasions, sent a message traditionally believed to have instructed British towns to provide for their own defence, though some scholars argue it may have referred to cities in Gaul.

Without the presence of Roman administrators or troops, Londinium entered a prolonged economic and social slump.

Its public buildings fell into disrepair, and its port, once bustling with trade from across the empire, stood largely abandoned. 

Evidence from the fifth century suggests that parts of the city were still lived in, particularly around the strong walls, but the town’s organisation broke down.

Some buildings appear to have been reused by later communities, and coin hoards from the late fourth century suggest growing insecurity.

Trade networks dissolved, markets ceased to operate regularly, and many residents may have fled to surrounding countryside.

Later Saxon settlers established villages near the river, such as Lundenwic, but they did not reoccupy the Roman centre until the late ninth century, when it was restored under Alfred the Great as Lundenburh.

The ruins of Londinium were gradually buried, although traces of its street grid and some of its defensive structures survived into the medieval period. 

Urban development in modern London has provided archaeologists with frequent opportunities to investigate Roman occupation beneath the city.

One of the most important discoveries occurred in 1988, when builders uncovered the remains of a Roman amphitheatre beneath Guildhall Yard.

Capable of seating up to 6,000 spectators, the structure hosted gladiatorial contests, executions, and ceremonial events.

A preserved section remains on display today. 

Another remarkable find is the Mithraeum, a temple dedicated to the god Mithras, which was uncovered in 1954 during construction near Walbrook.

The site included statues, altars, and inscriptions, which revealed that Roman inhabitants worshipped cult deities from eastern provinces.

The temple’s location in the commercial district suggests that merchants and civil servants may have participated in Mithraic rituals.

The Mithraeum was later reconstructed and reopened to the public in the 2010s. 

In 2016, during excavations at Bloomberg Place, archaeologists recovered over 400 wooden writing tablets from waterlogged soil.

These tablets included business agreements, loan records, and personal notes.

One tablet, dated to AD 65, contains the earliest known written reference to London as “Londinio.”

Another, dated to 8 January AD 57, records a financial transaction and provides insight into early legal practices. 

Other finds include decorated floor mosaics, marble sculptures, coins, brooches, and imported pottery, which show the wealth and diversity of Roman London.

Burial sites uncovered in Spitalfields and Southwark contained fine grave goods, such as glass containers and jewellery, indicating that many residents retained Roman funerary customs long after the initial conquest.

Analysis of human remains from cemeteries suggests that Londinium’s population included people from as far away as North Africa and the Rhineland.

Defensive structures, including large portions of the Roman wall still visible at Tower Hill and the Barbican, provide clear evidence of how Rome’s military force and civil administration, which also influenced local traditions reshaped this corner of Britannia.