Who was Nefertari, the most famous ancient Egyptian queen?

During the 19th Dynasty (c. 1292 to 1189 BCE), Egypt entered one of its wealthiest and most politically stable periods.

Seti I, the father of Ramesses II, had restored Egyptian control across Canaan and Nubia, laying the groundwork for his son’s long and ambitious reign.

The country’s borders had been re-secured following the disorder of the Second Intermediate Period, and the pharaohs of this era invested heavily in construction and religious ceremonies and military campaigns.

Trade routes stretched across the Near East, and diplomatic marriages with foreign kingdoms had become an accepted tool of policy.

In this thriving environment, women of the royal court could have strong influence through their connection to the pharaoh and their religious duties. 

Born into this setting, Nefertari likely came from a noble family, though her exact background remains unclear.

Scholars have debated whether she was related to the previous royal family or to the priesthood of Thebes.

Her earliest appearance in historical records matches the first years of Ramesses II's reign, suggesting that she likely married him shortly before or just as he assumed the throne in 1279 BCE, although the exact timing is unclear.

Her rise to the position of Great Royal Wife placed her in one of the most visible and respected roles in Egyptian court life. 

Throughout his reign, Ramesses II publicly celebrated Nefertari in ways that surpassed traditional recognition.

He referred to her in writings with phrases such as “the one for whom the sun shines” and ordered numerous statues and reliefs showing her beside him.

These artistic choices showed her high status and how much affection Ramesses held for her.

Unlike many royal wives, Nefertari appeared frequently in temple images, which typically reserved space for gods, kings, and very high-status queens.

Titles such as "Hereditary Princess" and "Mistress of Grace" and "Sweet of Love" accompanied her images, further elevating her public stature. 

Their marriage produced several children, including sons who would take up military and religious posts within the state.

Some sources suggest that she bore several children, but only a few, such as Amun-her-khepeshef, Pareherwenemef, and possibly Meryatum, can be confidently attributed to her based on existing inscriptions.

Nefertari often accompanied Ramesses on official state visits and religious processions, appearing in inscriptions at places such as Karnak and Abu Simbel.

Her visibility in these contexts supports the view that she fulfilled diplomatic and ceremonial roles alongside her symbolic role as queen.

She remained a central figure in public image for at least the first two decades of Ramesses’ reign. 

Through her titles, Nefertari demonstrated an association with both earthly power and divine favour.

She was regularly described as “Mistress of Upper and Lower Egypt” and “Great Wife of the King,” which were the highest honours available to a royal consort.

In addition to these titles, she also bore the name “God’s Wife of Amun,” which tied her directly to the powerful priesthood of Thebes.

This title, which had earlier been held by queens such as Ahmose-Nefertari, carried significant ritual authority and may have allowed her to influence temple affairs and state-sponsored rituals. 

Although women in ancient Egypt did not rule in their own right unless they became regents or pharaohs, Nefertari’s influence likely came from her proximity to power, her religious status, and the personal regard of Ramesses.

Some scholars suggest she may have acted as an informal advisor or diplomat, especially in correspondence with foreign queens and kings.

Egyptian queens are known to have engaged in royal communication, as illustrated by earlier examples in the Amarna archive.

She may have continued this tradition, particularly in correspondence with the Hittite royal family after the signing of the peace treaty between Egypt and Hatti.

Her position within the royal household and her frequent depiction in regal attire underscore her importance in political and religious life. 

Among the most enduring symbols of Nefertari’s status is the temple dedicated to her at Abu Simbel.

Commissioned by Ramesses II, it stands beside the larger temple built for himself and the gods Amun, Ra-Horakhty, and Ptah.

The smaller temple, dedicated to Hathor and Nefertari, is unique because it places the queen on an equal footing with the gods.

Statues of Nefertari are nearly the same height as those of Ramesses, each standing close to 10 metres tall, which was rare in Egyptian art and suggests that she occupied an exceptional position. 

Inside the temple, scenes show Nefertari making offerings to deities such as Hathor, Mut, and Isis.

The emphasis on her role as priestess and participant in sacred rites reveals how she functioned as both a mortal consort and a link between the royal house and the gods.

The dedication to Hathor, a goddess associated with joy, motherhood, and music, reinforced Nefertari’s public image as both a nurturing and divine presence.

The artistic program of the temple elevated her beyond the typical portrayal of a queen and aligned her with divine femininity.

This reinforced her symbolic power in the eyes of both the public and the priesthood. 

In 1904, the Italian archaeologist Ernesto Schiaparelli uncovered Nefertari’s tomb in the Valley of the Queens.

Known as QV66, it is among the most richly decorated tombs in all of ancient Egypt.

Located in the main wadi of the necropolis, the tomb’s ceilings are painted deep blue and spangled with golden stars, representing the heavens that would carry the queen into eternity.

The painted walls display vivid scenes from the Book of the Dead, as well as elements from other funerary texts such as the Amduat and the Book of Gates, guiding Nefertari’s spirit through the trials of the afterlife.

The artwork is exceptionally well-preserved, showing the queen in elaborate garments and headdresses, receiving protection and blessings from gods like Osiris, Thoth, and Anubis. 

Although the tomb had been looted in antiquity, the quality of the remaining wall paintings and the craftsmanship of the chamber have led Egyptologists to regard it as a masterpiece of New Kingdom art.

Items such as fragments of a decorated coffin, parts of her sarcophagus, and pieces of jewellery were found inside, giving some insight into the wealth and ritual preparation that surrounded her burial.

The tomb’s scale and detail affirm her status at court and the enduring significance of her memory well beyond her lifetime.

Its rediscovery contributed to a renewed focus on the role of royal women in ancient Egypt and remains a centrepiece of scholarly and artistic interest to this day.