How the Vikings waged war

Viking boys began their military training during childhood, when they learned essential skills such as rowing, climbing, wrestling and the use of weapons under the guidance of fathers, uncles and local war leaders.

Through repeated exposure to physical hardship and competition, they built a level of physical strength that allowed them to endure combat.

This was meant to increase through constant effort, and their coordination improved to the standard required for close-order fighting and to earn respect among their peers.

The Norse custom of holmgang, a formal duel, provided a socially accepted way in some regions, particularly early medieval Scandinavia, for individuals to prove courage and to resolve disputes with honour.

However, it became outlawed in Iceland by the eleventh century. 

Social advancement often depended on personal bravery, which meant that warbands frequently attracted young men eager to gain wealth, land, or fame.

Loyalty to a chieftain or jarl offered protection and the chance to share in the spoils of victory.

That loyalty also required strict discipline and a readiness to obey commands in the chaos of combat.

Within the shield wall, individual skill probably mattered very little. As such, unity and mutual trust were essential for survival. 

Viking society encouraged competition among its warriors and expected them to cooperate on campaign.

Runestones sometimes recorded individual achievements in battle or raids abroad, and these inscriptions served as public statements of honour and personal identity.

Therefore, reputation mattered in a culture where strength and loyalty could define a man’s place in the world.

Law codes such as Grágás, written in Iceland after the Viking Age, emphasised honour as a legal principle, established rules for compensation, and defined expectations of military duty in disputes.

As a result, those codes likely preserved some earlier traditions. 

Raiding expeditions had begun as seasonal ventures but had become permanent campaigns supported by a naval force unmatched in speed and flexibility.

The earliest recorded Viking raid on England occurred in 789, when raiders killed a royal official in Dorset.

Although, the raid on Lindisfarne in 793 became more notorious, as warriors looted a Christian monastery, slaughtered some occupants, and shocked observers across Christendom.

A second major raid hit the monastery at Iona in 795 and spread fear through Christian communities. 

Longships formed the core of Viking naval strength, and they enabled warriors to travel far upriver, attack isolated settlements, and vanish before defenders could respond.

With their shallow keels, flexible hulls, and a combination of sail and oar power, these ships could operate in open seas or narrow waterways, and they gave Viking raiders access to inland trade centres, fortresses and religious sites.

They were made from overlapping timber planks that was strengthened by a central keel, whcih created both durability and speed.

The discovery of the Roskilde ships in Denmark shows modern historians how they were built. 

Commanders selected targets based on wealth, isolation and strategic importance, and they often launched attacks at dawn or during poor weather to catch defenders off guard.

Raiding parties moved quickly, and they left their ships, pillaged, and returned to sea within hours.

When local rulers began to offer Danegeld, a payment in silver to avoid destruction, Viking leaders accepted it as a practical reward and a demonstration of their power.

After the Battle of Maldon in 991, the English paid a tribute of £10,000 in silver to avoid further Viking attacks. 

By the mid ninth century, many Vikings had begun to establish winter camps, which soon evolved into permanent settlements or fortified bases.

For example, Dublin was founded in 841 and was a major naval hub in Ireland, while settlements along the Seine and Loire allowed raiders to strike deep into Francia.

The Great Heathen Army, which landed in England in 865, exemplified this shift toward sustained conquest and occupation.

Eventually, Viking leader Rollo received control of Normandy from the Frankish king Charles the Simple in 911, effectively creating a new polity as payment for military cooperation and defence against future Viking incursions. 

When they fought in pitched battles rather than raids, Viking warriors relied on disciplined formations and aggressive tactics.

The shield wall remained the most important battlefield formation, with warriors who locked their round shields in overlapping rows, creating a continuous line that absorbed enemy blows and allowed counterattacks.

From behind the line, spearmen jabbed at opponents through gaps, while axe-wielders stepped forward to strike at exposed limbs or heads.

This formation succeeded at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066. 

Experienced commanders placed the strongest and most experienced men in the front lines or at the flanks, where pressure was greatest and where a break could cause collapse.

Orders passed through shouting or signalling. Once combat had begun, control often depended on the instincts and unity of the fighters.

Units that failed to hold the line exposed their comrades to flanking or encirclement, and defeat could follow quickly. 

Occasionally, Viking warbands used wedge formations, such as the svinfylking, to break through enemy lines with sudden attacks.

This required timing and confidence in those who led the charge. If the wedge succeeded, it disrupted the enemy formation, and it allowed the rest of the Viking force to exploit the gap.

The sagas describe such tactics that Harald Hardrada’s forces used during their campaigns, though the historical accuracy of those descriptions is uncertain because the svinfylking appears primarily in literary rather than contemporary military records. 

Regardless, Viking commanders often chose ground that favoured infantry and reduced the effectiveness of enemy cavalry.

Riverbanks, marshlands, and forests offered cover and slowed mounted attacks.

Some warbands used ambushes or pretended retreats to draw opponents into traps.

These tactics demanded discipline and communication, which many Viking warriors had developed through years of raiding and campaign experience.

The Battle of Clontarf in 1014 involved such manoeuvres by Viking and Irish forces. 

When they defended encampments or strongholds, Vikings built wooden palisades or used ships to create barriers.

At sea, their ships could form floating defences or act as mobile attack platforms.

Their ability to adapt tactics to different enemies and terrains gave them an advantage that many European opponents found difficult to counter for generations. 

Over the centuries, popular images of Viking warfare had become distorted through idealised literature and nationalist myths.

Many chroniclers from Christian Europe had portrayed Vikings as bloodthirsty savages who had no honour or discipline.

Later writers imagined them as invincible heroes defined by personal courage and reckless bravery. Both extremes ignored practical realities of Viking warfare. 

Modern archaeological evidence and careful study of contemporary sources show a more accurate picture of Viking fighters as disciplined, adaptable, and well organised warriors who used their naval movement, battlefield experience, and social unity to win battles and seize opportunities.

They pursued treasure and personal fame, and they attached great importance to loyalty among comrades.

They also planned campaigns with strategic aims and long-term goals. Scholars such as Neil Price and Judith Jesch have emphasised the need to re-examine the evidence through both material evidence and saga literature. 

Most intrestingly, no evidence supports the idea that Viking warriors wore horned helmets in combat.

That image appeared in the 1800s through theatrical productions and artistic interpretations, not in historical fact.

Actual Viking helmets were typically made of iron, often had a rounded cap and a nasal guard, which offered practical protection without decoration. 

Where Vikings settled permanently, such as in Normandy, eastern England, and parts of Ireland, their military traditions merged with local customs, which contributed to the rise of new hybrid cultures.

Their impact forced kingdoms to fortify towns, improve naval defences, and develop more flexible armies.

Viking warfare changed political and military arrangements across early medieval Europe and left traces in place names and legal rules across the territories they once raided and ruled.