Lycurgus: How one visionary transformed ancient Sparta into a fierce military state

Before these changes came to be, the city of Sparta faced several problems that weakened its unity and stability. 

For instance, it was located in the fertile Eurotas Valley and had good land, but remained open to threats from neighbouring territories. 

By the 8th century BCE, powerful families competed for influence, and the gap between rich landowners and poorer citizens grew wider. 

To get more resources, leaders fought the First Messenian War, which is usually dated to about 743–724 BCE, although historians note these dates are only estimates. 

That conflict took control of Messenia and forced thousands of Messenians into servitude as helot slaves.

By the late 7th century BCE, there was a major helot revolt around 665 BCE led by Aristomenes.

Following these events, tensions stayed high between helots and citizens, which put a strain on resources and making it harder for people to unite. 

At the same time, political power was held by a small elite. Policial offices often stayed within a few noble families, which was begin to cause anger among lower-status Spartiates.

Also, its culture grew more slowly than peers such as Athens, which began trying different political systems.

In contrast, Spartan society devoted most resources on survival, leaving little room for arts or philosophy. 

Because there was no clear written code early on, the city operated under various local customs that were subject to frequent change.

This situation obviously made it hard to govern everyone in a consistent way.

Ancient writers say he came from the Eurypontid royal family and may have been a younger son of King Eunomus, a position that did not make him a direct heir to the throne. 

When his older brother died, some accounts say he became regent for his nephew, the true heir, and managed the affairs of state during the time of transition.

Later stories say he travelled to Crete to learn about their laws, and also to Ionia to see societies rich in art and luxury: examples he wanted to avoid copying back in Sparta. 

In particular, Plutarch also adds that he might have reached Egypt or visited the oracle at Delphi, but these journeys come from later tales rather than records from his own time. 

After he returned to his home city, Lycurgus suggested a series of reforms to fix social inequality and the growing military weaknesses.

Lycurgus is credited with introducing the Great Rhetra, a set of rules that changed how the city was governed.

This likely happened during the 7th century BCE, but historians argue over the exact timing. 

Specifically, according to tradition, it set up the gerousia (a council of elders made up of twenty-eight men over sixty and the two kings).

The Rhetra also gave power to the apella, an assembly of male citizens that probably included Spartiates at least thirty years old.

It was their task to vote on ideas presented by the gerousia. 

Later sources say the Rhetra banned the building of defensive walls around Sparta.

If so, it was a rule that encouraged citizens to rely on their training rather than walls. 

However, actual walls would eventually appear around the city in later centuries, such as during the Theban siege of 378 BCE. 

At the heart of the new laws was the conecpt of eunomia, which meant 'the proper order'.

This was likely was a value emphasised by the various rules that Lycurgus introduced, as many of them urged citizens to place common welfare above private interests. 

It also appears that Lycurgus included the use of iron currency. Archaeological finds show that Spartan iron took the form of spits or cast bars rather than stamped coins.

This may have been designed to discouraging individuals from saving for personal wealth or to reduce wealth-producing trade with other states. 

However, the bars that held little value and proved hard to use for commerce.

Under the new system proposed by Lycurgus, education because a significant focus. 

In fact, it established the agoge, a programme that took boys at the age seven into communal training for physical strength and fighting skills. 

Here, they practised wrestling, spear and shield drills, and a form of public speaking that was htough to help teach them restraint and obedience.

After their initial training, the young Spartiates were presented with a series of tests that would tes their survival and self-control.

Those who succeeded joined the citizen-soldiers in the Spartan army.

Lycurgus’ rules also set out distinctions for the different social classes, including Spartiates (full citizens), perioeci (free non-citizens), and helots (state workers). 

The Spartiates focused on military service; helots worked in agriculture and provided food, which allowed full citizens to focus on fighting. 

Helots were mainly from Messenia and faced strict control measures. Later stories describe how the Spartans conducted raids on the helot population to reinforce their control and suppress any potential uprisings. 

Meanwhile, perioeci worked as traders and craftspeople. They only fought in the army when needed. 

To form a disciplined phalanx, soldiers trained to fight shoulder to shoulder in a formation that required careful coordination and trust. 

When they did so, they had to carry large round shields called an aspis and eight-foot spears.

They practised drills focused on rhythm and team movement. This training made their phalanx incredibly hard to break in battle. 

Next, joining a syssitia (a common meal group) strengthened bonds among citizens.

The exact size and joining age changed over time, but being part of a syssitia remained a necessary requirement for any Spartan seeking full citizenship. 

Also, men who met these requirements formed an elite group; writers mention that there were 8,000 Spartiates in the 7th or early 6th century BCE, but numbers dropped by the classical era to perhaps 2,000–3,000. 

Stories credit Lycurgus with splitting land into kleroi, which were equal plots given to each Spartan citizen.

This may have been to reduce economic differences between individuals. 

However, modern research suggests these plots may have appeared gradually instead of all at once during Lycurgus' lifetime. 

It must be remembered, though, that families relied on helot labour to work these kleroi.

Later writers say he left the city and never came back. Herodotus and Plutarch say he was responsible for key reforms, but no records from that time mention his name explicitly.

Because of this, many scholars see him as a legend, rather than a real person, who was meant to explain the various Spartan customs which likely developed over many years. 

However, if he was real, his reforms show deliberate steps to solve social problems in early Sparta.