Who were Hyksos and how did they come to rule over ancient Egypt?

The Hyksos came from regions to the northeast of Egypt, likely from areas that are now southern Canaan and Syria.

Linguistic analysis of names found on monuments and seals indicates that many Hyksos rulers spoke a Semitic language related to those of the Levant.

There is evidence that personal names such as Khyan, Yaqub-Har, and Apepi were West Semitic, even as they adopted full Egyptian royal names.

The Egyptian term for the Hysksos was heqa khasut, which meant “rulers of foreign lands,” and referred to their position as outsiders who established themselves as kings in the Nile Delta.

This name probably originally functioned as a generic title for Asian chieftains in Middle Kingdom texts.

Regardless, they ruled in the north as Egypt’s Fifteenth Dynasty at the same time as native Theban rulers in the south.

Some scholars suggest that they were part of a gradual migration of people into the fertile eastern Nile Delta during the late Middle Kingdom, where they settled, traded, and established local communities.

Archaeological excavations at Tell el-Dab’a, identified as the Hyksos capital of Avaris, have revealed material culture that blends Egyptian and Levantine styles.

Work directed by Manfred Bietak uncovered Levantine-style houses, donkey and horse burials, and distinctive Tell el-Yehudiyeh ware that linked the site to Canaanite traditions.

Pottery forms and burial practices also display strong connections to the Canaanite world since there is a clear pattern in the settlement’s domestic architecture.

Strontium-isotope studies undertaken by archaeologists indicate many non-local individuals, especially women, in early phases, matched patterns of migration and marriage networks.

Over time, these communities grew in number and influence until they had the economic and military strength to take political power.

The Greek historian Manetho names Salitis as the founder, but the earliest securely attested rulers include Sakir-Har and Khyan, followed by Apepi (Apophis) and Khamudi. 

The decline of Egypt’s central authority at the end of the Middle Kingdom created conditions that allowed the Hyksos to rise.

Native Egyptian rulers in Thebes controlled the south as the Seventeenth Dynasty, while the Hyksos ruled the north as the Fifteenth Dynasty.

The Sixteenth Dynasty also ruled from Thebes in the south. The north was fragmented into smaller principalities, each vulnerable to external influence.

The Hyksos took advantage of this instability as they forged alliances with local leaders and used their military strength to consolidate control over the Delta.

Earlier in the eastern Delta, the Fourteenth Dynasty had held control during the late Middle Kingdom.

Sources suggest that their takeover happened through a series of political moves and strategic occupations rather than a single military campaign.

They maintained strong defensive positions at Avaris, which gave them control over vital trade routes that linked Egypt to the Levant and allowed them to control customs and transport on timber, metals (including tin, likely via long-distance routes), resins, and textiles.

Ultimately, their territory extended from the Mediterranean coastline down into Middle Egypt, likely as far as Cusae, which gave them a powerful role in the country’s economic life for nearly a century. 

The Hyksos introduced a number of technological and cultural innovations into Egypt.

The most significant military development was the use of the light, spoked-wheel horse-drawn chariot, which gave them a mobility advantage over Egyptian forces that relied on infantry.

They also brought the composite bow, which had greater range and power than earlier Egyptian weapons, as well as improved bronze weaponry such as the khopesh (sickle-sword) and new axe forms such as the epsilon or duck-bill axe.

Culturally, the Hyksos adopted many aspects of Egyptian royal tradition, including the use of pharaonic titulary and religious support.

Temples at Avaris show evidence of worship of both Egyptian gods, such as Seth, and Canaanite gods, such as Baal, with a prominent Seth–Baal storm-god cult.

They introduced new artistic styles and building techniques, some of which were later incorporated into native Egyptian traditions.

At Avaris, fragments of Minoan-style frescoes, now dated to the early 18th Dynasty after the Hyksos period, shows that they had significant to Aegean contacts.

Also, carabs and seals attributed to Khyan have been reported from the Levant and possibly the Aegean and Anatolia, although exact contexts and dates are debated.

Nevertheless, their presence encouraged increased trade with the Near East, which brought foreign goods, materials, and ideas into the Nile Valley.

The campaign to remove the Hyksos began in the south under the leadership of Theban rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty.

Pharaoh Seqenenre Tao initiated hostilities but personally died violently during the conflict.

In fact, his mummy shows severe head injuries that are probably the result of close combat, but scholars debate the exact circumstances of his death.

His successor, Kamose, continued the struggle, and he launched raids into Hyksos territory to cut off their trade connections, as described on the Kamose Stelae from Karnak.

The final victory came under Ahmose I, who besieged Avaris and forced the Hyksos to retreat into southern Canaan.

Egyptian records, such as those inscribed on the walls of the temple at Karnak and in the autobiographical tomb of Ahmose, son of Ebana, describe the pursuit of the Hyksos into their last stronghold at Sharuhen, which fell after a prolonged siege that is often stated to have lasted three years.

This victory was the beginning of the New Kingdom, during which Egypt became a major imperial power, set up a permanent chariot corps, stationed troops in Nubia, and built up defences along the Levantine frontier known as the “Ways of Horus,” which included the key fortress at Tjaru (Sile). 

Much of what is known about the Hyksos comes from later Egyptian records and archaeological discoveries, while the third-century BC historian Manetho added accounts that provide more detail about the military conquest.

Some specifics are hard to be sure of since there was some confusion about the period of time in later ancient historians.

For example, the later phrase “Shepherd Kings” is probably a misunderstanding of heqa khasut (“rulers of foreign lands”), and Manetho's narrative was written more than 1000 years after the events he describes. 

However, archaeological work at Tell el-Dab’a has provided the most direct evidence for the Hyksos presence in Egypt.

Excavations have uncovered palaces with distinctive Levantine architectural styles, large court complexes with audience halls, storage facilities for grain and goods, and defensive features such as ditches and earthworks.

Burials within the settlement include both Egyptian-style tombs and Canaanite-style shaft graves, with donkey burials and some graves that contain horse remains, which provide a direct link to the introduction of chariot warfare. 

Also, seals and inscriptions that bear the names of Hyksos rulers, such as Khyan and Apophis, have been found in Egypt and in sites across the Levant and, in a few debated instances, in the Aegean, which shows how far their trade and diplomacy reached.

Interesting, the Turin King List mentions several Hyksos as kings of Egypt, but place them in a separate section.

Pottery remains shows the mixing of Egyptian and Near Eastern styles. Together, these finds offer a clear record of a foreign dynasty that left a long-term impact on Egyptian history.