Garum: Ancient Rome's favourite, and utterly repulsive, condiment

In the ancient world before widespread refrigeration, preserving food often involved fermentation or drying.

Mediterranean societies that relied heavily on seafood discovered that fish, left in the sun with salt, eventually broke down into a strong-smelling liquid that could be collected and used.

Greek sailors and Phoenician traders first experimented with this technique around the 5th century BC by using small fish such as anchovies and sardines.

The earliest known references to fermented fish sauces came from the Greek city-states, but the Romans made its use widespread across the empire. 

By the 1st century BC, Rome’s growing wealth and expansion across coastal territories gave its elites access to thriving fisheries, particularly in Spain, North Africa, and southern Italy.

These coastal areas became centres for large-scale garum production. Roman writers such as Pliny the Elder and Martial described garum as both an elite product and an unavoidable reality of urban life.

Its strong smell gained a place at nearly every Roman dinner table, whether in a soldier’s mess tent or a senator’s banquet hall. 

Inside the large amphorae or stone vats used for its production, producers placed fish guts, heads, bones, and small whole fish.

They added large amounts of salt and left the mixture to ferment in the sun for up to three months.

The natural enzymes and heat caused the proteins in the fish to break down. A clear, brownish liquid gradually separated from the solid matter and rose to the top.

Workers carefully skimmed this liquid, which became the finished product. The leftover solid remains, known as allec, were sold cheaply to the poor or used to nourish crops. 

Different grades of garum appeared through changes in fish species. Producers adjusted salt levels and fermentation time to produce different tastes.

The highest quality, called liquamen or garum sociorum, came from mackerel and was extremely expensive.

It was often sealed in branded amphorae and shipped across the empire. Cheaper versions used whatever fish offcuts were available.

Wealthy Romans preferred refined garum in sauces, while poorer citizens purchased thicker, rougher versions from local markets. 

Across Roman society, garum became necessary in cooking. It replaced salt in many recipes and brought flavour to dishes that would otherwise have been bland or unappetising.

Cooks added it to stews, poured it over roasts, and mixed it into salad dressings.

The Roman cookbook Apicius, compiled in the 1st century AD, mentions garum in hundreds of recipes.

It appeared in both everyday meals and lavish banquets. Its strong umami flavour made it useful and necessary. 

Garum also featured in medicine. Roman physicians believed it could aid digestion, cure dog bites, treat ulcers, and disinfect wounds.

Pliny the Elder listed dozens of uses for it in his Natural History. Some forms were mixed with wine or vinegar to make a kind of tonic.

In religious rituals, garum offerings appeared in sacrifices and libations. Romans even gave bottles of garum as diplomatic gifts to foreign rulers.

It seems that in every part of life, from kitchen to temple, garum had a role. 

Coastal towns such as Gades (modern Cádiz) and Pompeii developed large-scale production centres that employed dozens of workers and shipped garum across the empire.

The value of garum grew as demand increased. Amphorae stamped with producer names and trademarks have been found as far as Britain, Gaul, and the Danube frontier.

The profits from garum allowed producers to amass wealth and sometimes gain local political power.

A few factory owners even reached equestrian status. 

Taxes and trade tariffs on garum added to imperial revenues. The empire controlled transport routes and protected merchant fleets, which allowed garum to be sold in bulk and over great distances.

Specialised garum markets existed in Rome and Alexandria. In places like Pompeii, entire neighbourhoods centred around garum factories, complete with housing for workers, fermentation vats, storage rooms, and shipping facilities.

Excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum uncovered detailed evidence of garum production.

In the insula of Aulus Umbricius Scaurus at Pompeii, archaeologists found amphorae bearing his name, along with images of fish and inscriptions advertising his product as the best in the empire.

These branded containers acted like ancient product labels. His factory produced garum from mackerel and distributed it throughout the Mediterranean.

Graffiti and shop signs around Pompeii often mentioned garum, revealing its commercial and cultural presence. 

Further evidence has come from shipwrecks. The Madrague de Giens shipwreck off the coast of France contained hundreds of amphorae packed with garum jars, sealed with resin to prevent leakage.

In some cases, remnants of garum have been chemically analysed, showing the types of fish used and the salt content.

These finds confirm historical sources and give direct insight into how the industry operated.

In a few rare cases, even traces of smell have been detected, offering an unpleasant window into the realities of ancient production. 

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, the garum industry declined rapidly.

The collapse of imperial trade routes made long-distance transport too risky and expensive.

Local production continued for a while in parts of Byzantium, but without the demand and infrastructure of the old empire, it lost its commercial viability.

The tastes of medieval Europe shifted away from fermented fish sauces towards herbs, spices, and vinegar. 

Another reason for its disappearance was the association with pagan rituals and Roman luxury.

Christian authorities condemned many Roman culinary practices as wasteful or immoral.

Over time, new food cultures developed in former Roman territories, and garum vanished from most tables.

By the 9th century, it had largely disappeared from Europe. Only fragments of recipes and references in old texts preserved its memory. 

Although garum itself no longer exists in its original form, similar fish sauces survive in parts of southern Europe and Asia.

In Italy, colatura di alici from the Amalfi Coast uses anchovies and salt in a process nearly identical to ancient garum production.

In Southeast Asia, nam pla in Thailand and nước mắm in Vietnam fulfil the same role in cooking, flavouring a wide range of dishes.

These sauces, like garum, come from fermented fish and have a strong, salty taste. 

Historians and chefs have recreated ancient garum recipes using ingredients and methods based on archaeological and literary evidence.

Experimental archaeology projects in Spain and Italy have attempted to ferment fish in open-air vats as the Romans did.

Though modern health codes prevent large-scale revival, small-batch versions have appeared in gourmet markets.

For those curious enough to try it, garum’s unmistakable punch offers a link to one of the most long-lasting and revolting flavours of the ancient world.