Spectacular pyramids and ruthless pharaohs: The rise and fall of Egypt's Old Kingdom

Sphinx and stars at night
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The Old Kingdom period, which lasted from c. 2600 to c. 2100 BC, is often considered to be the 'Golden Age' in ancient Egyptian history.

 

This was a time when the pharaohs ruled over a prosperous and powerful nation, and made huge strides in terms of art, architecture, and culture.

The first pharaohs

Around 3100 BC, the first dynasty of Egypt was founded by King Narmer (also called Menes).

 

He unified the country and established Memphis as the capital city. Under his rule, and that of his successors, Egypt flourished.

 

The Old Kingdom is often subdivided into three periods: the Early Dynastic Period, the Old Kingdom proper, and the First Intermediate Period.

 

During the Early Dynastic Period, the government was centralised, and the country was divided into provinces.

 

During the Third Dynasty, the country's independent states were known as nomes (districts) directly under the authority of a centralized government at Memphis.

Hunters Palette
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The pyramid builders

The Old Kingdom proper began around 2680 BC when pharaoh Djoser established the Third Dynasty.

 

He is best known for commissioning the Step Pyramid at Saqqara.

 

Previous kings had themselves buried in structures called mastabas. A mastaba was a flat-roofed, rectangular tomb that is dug into the ground with rooms that are meant to represent a house.

 

They were made out of mudbricks, which eroded over long periods of time.

Djoser wanted a burial structure that was more permanent and more impressive than the old mastaba design, and so commissioned his architect, Imhotep, to achieve this.

 

Imhotep designed a stone structure that began as a single mastaba, but then place another mastaba on top of it which was slightly smaller.

 

Then he continued to place additional stone mastabas of gradually smaller size on top of each one until he created a stepped pyramid design.

 

This was a revolution in tomb building and something that later pharaohs would be keen to copy.

Ancient Egyptian step pyramid
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By the start of the fourth dynasty, pharaohs wanted similar tombs and commissioned their own architects to out-do Imhotep's original design. 

 

The pharaoh Sneferu had three attempts at a pyramid before he created something that worked. 

 

His first attempt was at Meidum, where he built a stepped pyramid like Djoser, but added smooth limestone sides to create the first 'true' pyramid. 

 

However, it appears that the incline of the sides was too steep and cracks in the structure may have meant that the project was abandoned.

Next, Sneferu's attempted a second at Dahshur near modern Cairo. It has become known as the Bent Pyramid because the builders began with sides rising at a 55-degree angle before it changes to a 43-degree slope halfway up.

 

Modern historians believe that the incline was again too steep, so they had to change while the project was in process.

 

Sneferu appeared to have recognized the problem and moved on to build his third pyramid.

Ancient Egyptian bent pyramid
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Sneferu's final attempt was a success. Today, it is called the Red Pyramid and is also located at Dahshur.

 

It gets its name from the red limestone used in its creation and it would be the third largest pyramid in Egypt.

 

It was the first successful smooth-sided pyramid.


The Great Pyramid

Khufu, Sneferu's successor, built the most famous pyramid of all, the Great Pyramid at Giza. 

 

Khufu's pyramid, which was built around 2550 BC, would be the largest ever built at around 150 metres high, and is also the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

 

Khufu's pyramid was so big that it was said to have been built by slaves, but there is no evidence of this.

 

The Great Pyramid is made up of about two million limestone blocks, each weighing an average of two tons.

 

The workers who built it were probably paid in grain, which was rationed out according to how much work they did.

The workers lived in camps near the pyramid site and were organised into gangs overseen by foremen.

 

The gangs were divided into smaller teams, each with its own task, such as hauling stone or mixing mortar.

 

Khufu had a reputation for being a cruel and tyrannical ruler, as recorded by the Greek historian Herodotus, and stories about him were passed down through the ages.

 

It was said that he had his workers killed when they became too weak to work or when they made mistakes.

 

It is worth noting that the story about Khufu's tyranny and his murdering of workers is a claim that comes from later Greek sources and is not supported by archaeological evidence from his time.

 

In fact, archaeological evidence suggests that pyramid workers were not slaves but rather paid laborers who were well-fed and cared for.

Great pyramid of Khufu
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The Great Pyramid was not the only thing built during Khufu's reign. He also commissioned the construction of a temple complex known as the Great Temple of Khufu, which was located next to the pyramid.

 

The complex included several smaller pyramids, temples, storage rooms, and an administrative center.

 

The pharaohs built these pyramid tombs to protect their mummified bodies. They were intentionally located on the west side of the River Nile River, which is the direction of the setting sun. 

 

The setting sun was associated with the realm of the dead in ancient Egyptian belief. 

 

Therefore, the location of the pyramids was not arbitrary but held significant cultural and religious meaning.

 

The pharaohs were buried in pyramids with expensive burial items, so that they would have everything they needed in the afterlife.

Today, there are two other pyramids at Giza, built close to Khufu's. They are both smaller in size.

 

One was built by pharaoh Khafre, Khufu's son, while the other was built by pharaoh Menkaure, Khufu's grandson.

 

The kings invested a great deal of wealth in their construction projects, which probably put a significant financial strain on their kingdoms.

 

During the fifth and sixth dynasties, pharaohs avoided such lavish structures, and seemed to have focused more on administration duties.

 

While evidence from this time period is limited, it seems that there may have been social unrest in Egypt, which was a warning of things to come.

Decline of the Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom period came to an end around 2150 BC owing to a number of factors including drought, famine, social unrest, and economic pressures.

 

One theory suggests that the Sahara Desert began to expand during this time, leading to a decline in agricultural productivity.

 

This would have had a knock-on effect on the economy, and eventually led to the collapse of the Old Kingdom.

 

The last of the great pharaohs was Pepi II who reigned for about 90 years. Following his death, Egypt fell into instability, times of famine and military conflict of which it wouldn't recover.

 

When drought occurred at the end of the sixth dynasty, the Old Kingdom ended.

 

After the collapse of the Old Kingdom, the First Intermediate Period began. This was a time of political upheaval and further economic decline, which fueled civil war between different people who sought to seize control of Egypt for themselves.


The importance of Ra

During the Old Kingdom period of Ancient Egyptian history, the sun-god Ra was one of the most important deities in the Egyptian pantheon.

 

Ra was believed to be the creator of the universe and the source of all life, and his worship was central to the religious beliefs of the Old Kingdom Egyptians.

 

One of the most significant examples of the importance of Ra during the Old Kingdom is the Pyramid Texts, which were inscribed on the walls of the royal pyramids.

 

These texts contain many references to Ra as the supreme deity and describe the pharaoh as a manifestation of Ra on earth.

 

The Pyramid Texts also include prayers and spells designed to help the pharaoh ascend to the afterlife and become one with Ra.

 

Another example of the importance of Ra during the Old Kingdom is the temple complex at Heliopolis, which was dedicated to Ra and his cult.

 

The complex included the Great Temple of Ra, which was a massive structure that housed the god's cult status and served as a center for worship and ritual activity.

 

The complex also included smaller temples and shrines dedicated to other deities associated with Ra.

Summary

In conclusion, the Old Kingdom period was a time of great prosperity and achievement for Ancient Egypt.

 

However, it came to an end around 2150 BC. The most famous pharaohs of this period include Djoser and Khufu.

 

Despite its eventual demise, the Old Kingdom left a lasting legacy on Ancient Egyptian society and was a remarkable period in Egyptian history.

 

It was a time of great achievements, both cultural and technological, that laid the foundation for Egypt's later success.

Ancient Egyptian temple
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Further reading