Historical sources on Captain Cook

"Whereas the Earl of Morton, President of the Royal Society, has represented to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty that the Passage of the Planet Venus over the Disk of the Sun ... cannot be so accurately observed in the Southern Hemisphere as in George's Island in the South Sea, and that the said Lords Commissioners have ... appointed you to command His Majesty's Bark the Endeavour ... You are to proceed ... in order to make the said Observation." 

"Whereas there is reason to imagine that a Continent or Land of great extent, may be found to the Southward of the Tract lately made by Captn Wallis in His Majesty's Ship the Dolphin ... You are therefore in Pursuance of His Majesty's Pleasure hereby requir'd and directed to put to Sea with the Bark you Command so soon as the Observation of the Transit of the Planet Venus shall be finished and ... proceed to the Southward in order to make discovery of the Continent abovementioned." 

"You are also carefully to observe the Nature of the Soil, and the Products thereof; the Beasts and Fowls that inhabit or frequent it ... and to bring home Specimens of each, as also such Specimens of the Seeds of the Trees, Fruits and Grains as you may be able to collect." 

"You will also observe with accuracy the Situation of such Islands as you may discover in the Course of your Voyage that have not hitherto been discover'd by any Europeans and take Possession for His Majesty." 

Contextual information:

The Admiralty wrote this instruction to Cook on 30 June 1768, just before the Endeavour [a small sailing ship] left England on its first Pacific voyage. The first part of the order was made public at the time, since it explained the official scientific reason for the voyage, observing the transit [the passing] of Venus across the sun from Tahiti. The second part stayed secret until after the voyage, because it directed Cook to search for an unknown southern continent and to claim any new land for Britain, a purpose that had serious consequences for the Indigenous peoples whose territory was claimed without their agreement. 

Bibliographical reference:

Great Britain, Admiralty. (1768). Secret instructions to Captain Cook, 30 June 1768 [Transcript]. 

Copyright: Public domain. 

"Friday 26th ... First part fresh breeze and Clowdy, remainder little wind and Clear. At 2 pm got under sail and put to Sea, having on board 94 persons including Officers Seamen Gentlemen and their Servants, near 18 months provisions, 10 Carriage guns, 12 Swivels with good store of Ammunition and stores of all kinds." 

"In the evening the yawl [a small ship's boat] return'd from fishing having caught two Sting rays weighing near 600 pounds. The great quantity of New Plants &ca Mr Banks & Dr Solander collected in this place occasioned my giveing it the name of Botany Bay." 

Contextual information:

James Cook was a British naval officer who commanded the Endeavour on its voyage to the Pacific between 1768 and 1771. He kept a daily journal throughout the voyage, recording the ship's position and the day's events, and the entry above describes both the ship's departure from England and its arrival at the bay on the eastern coast of New Holland (Australia) that Cook named for the plant specimens collected there by the expedition's botanists. 

Bibliographical reference:

Cook, J. (2004). Cook's journal: Daily entries, 26 August 1768 and 6 May 1770 (South Seas web edition of National Library of Australia MS 1). 

Copyright: Public domain.

"In the morn we went ashore at the houses, but found not the least good effect from our present yesterday: No signs of people were to be seen ... Dr Solander and myself went a little way into the woods and found many plants, but saw nothing like people.” 

Contextual information:

Joseph Banks was a wealthy English botanist [a scientist who studies plants] who joined Cook's first voyage at his own expense, bringing a team of scientists and artists to record the plant and animal life of the Pacific. This entry describes the first days after the Endeavour's landing at what would become known as Botany Bay in late April 1770, when Banks and the Swedish botanist Daniel Solander began collecting the unfamiliar plant specimens that gave the bay its name. 

Bibliographical reference:

Banks, J. (2004). The Endeavour journal of Sir Joseph Banks, 29 April 1770. 

Copyright: Public domain.

"Whether the unexplored part of the Southern Hemisphere be only an immense mass of water, or contain another continent, as speculative geography seemed to suggest, was a question which had long engaged the attention, not only of learned men, but of most of the maritime powers of Europe. To put an end to all diversity of opinion about a matter so curious and important, was his majesty's principal motive in directing this voyage to be undertaken." 

"We had besides many extra articles, such as malt, sour krout [pickled cabbage], salted cabbage, portable broth, saloup, mustard, marmalade of carrots, and inspissated [thickened] juice of wort and beer. Some of these articles had before been found to be highly antiscorbutic [able to prevent scurvy]; and others were now sent out on trial, or by way of experiment. Of malt is made sweet wort, which is given to such persons as have got the scurvy, or whose habit of body threatens them with it, from one to five or six pints a day, as the surgeon sees necessary." 

"The same Board furnished them with the best instruments ... and likewise with four time-pieces, or watch machines; three made by Mr Arnold, and one made by Mr Kendal on Mr Harrison's principles." 

"On the 10th of July the watches were set a-going in the presence of the two astronomers, Captain Furneaux, the first lieutenants of the ships, and myself, and put on board ... the other was made by Mr Kendal, upon the same principle, in every respect, as Mr Harrison's time-piece." 

Contextual information:

James Cook wrote this account of his second Pacific voyage (1772 to 1775), which aimed to sail further south than any previous expedition and settle once and for all whether a great southern continent existed. Cook believed the sweet wort made from malt was the main reason his crew avoided scurvy [a disease caused by lack of vitamin C]. Later research has shown wort contains almost no vitamin C, and fresh food combined with strict cleanliness on board were more likely responsible. The voyage also tested two early marine timekeepers, including a copy of John Harrison's chronometer [an accurate clock used to calculate a ship's longitude] made by Larcum Kendall, which let Cook calculate his ship's position with far greater accuracy than earlier navigators. 

Bibliographical reference: 

Cook, J. (1777). A voyage towards the South Pole, and round the world (Vol. 1, pp. n.p.). W. Strahan & T. Cadell. 

Copyright: Public domain.

"A transit of Venus over the sun's disc was to occur in 1769, and astronomers were anxious to take advantage of it, the object of the observation being to ascertain the distance of the earth from the sun, the fundamental base line in all astronomical measurements, and which was very imperfectly known. The Central Pacific afforded a favourable position, and the Royal Society memorialised [petitioned] the king to send a ship for the purpose. The request was granted, and at first Alexander Dalrymple ... was selected as observer. As, however, it was found that he also expected to command the ship, the Admiralty positively refused to have anything to do with him, and after some discussion James Cook was selected." 

"A good many of the Adventure's people were ill with scurvy, and Cook is much puzzled to know the reason why they were attacked while his own crew were free. He puts it down to the greater trouble he had taken to make all his men use wild celery and other herbs ... but one cannot but suspect that the constant care on his part to keep the ship clean and sweet below had much to do with it." 

Contextual information:

William Wharton was a British naval officer and hydrographer [a scientist who maps oceans and waterways] who edited and published Cook's first-voyage journal in 1893, adding his own introduction and footnotes drawing on Admiralty and Royal Society records. His introduction explains the scientific reasoning behind the choice of the transit of Venus as the voyage's stated purpose, and his footnote on the second voyage offers an early suggestion that shipboard cleanliness, rather than Cook's preferred remedy, explains why Cook's crew stayed healthier than the crew of the companion ship Adventure. 

Bibliographical reference:

Cook, J. (1893). Captain Cook's journal during his first voyage round the world (W. J. L. Wharton, Ed., pp. n.p.). Elliot Stock. 

Copyright: Public domain.

"His Majesty's sloops, the Resolution and Discovery, have been sent out under the command of Captain Cook, in order, during this and the ensuing year, to attempt a discovery of a northern passage, by sea, from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean; and, for that purpose, to run up as high as the latitude of 65 degrees north ... very carefully to search for, and explore such rivers, or inlets, as may appear to be of a considerable extent, and pointing to Hudson's or Baffin's Bays, or the North Sea." 

Contextual information:

 The Admiralty issued these instructions to Cook in 1776 before his third Pacific voyage, directing him to search the western coast of North America for a sea route, the Northwest Passage, that would connect the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic. James King was an officer on this voyage who completed and published the official account after Cook's death partway through the expedition. 

Bibliographical reference:

Cook, J., & King, J. (1784). A voyage to the Pacific Ocean (Vol. 5, pp. n.p.). G. Nicol & T. Cadell. 

Copyright: Public domain.

"In the month of January, 1779, the Resolution and Discovery lay about a fortnight at anchor in the bay of Kerag,e,goo,ah (Kealakekua), in the Island of Ou-why-ee (Hawaii) ... we left the harbour, on the fourth of February ... the next night, the Resolution had the misfortune of springing the head of her foremast ... that Captain Cook was obliged to return to Keragegooah (Kealakekua), in order to have it repaired." 

"During this time, Captain Cook was preparing to go ashore himself, at the town of Kavaroah (Kaawaloa), in order to secure the person of Kariopoo (Kalaniopuu), before he should have time to withdraw himself ... This appeared the most effectual [most likely to succeed] step that could be taken on the present occasion, for the recovery of the boat. It was the measure he had invariably pursued, in similar cases, at other islands in these seas." 

"Captain Cook followed, having hold of Kariopoo's (Kalaniopuu's) hand, who accompanied him very willingly ... just as he arrived at the water side, his wife threw her arms about his neck, and, with the assistance of two chiefs, forced him to sit down by the side of a double canoe ... telling him, that he would be put to death if he went on board the ship." 

"Captain Cook was then the only one remaining on the rock: he was observed making for the pinnace [a small boat], holding his left hand against the back of his head, to guard it from the stones, and carrying his musket under the other arm. An Indian was seen to come behind him, and to give him a blow on the head with a large club ... another Indian stabbed him in the back of the neck with an iron dagger. He then fell into a bite of water about knee deep ... a savage gave him a blow with a club, and he was seen alive no more." 

Contextual information:

David Samwell was the surgeon aboard the Discovery during Cook's third voyage and witnessed the events at Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii in February 1779, where the attempt to take the Hawaiian chief Kalaniopuu hostage in order to recover a stolen boat led to a violent confrontation on the shore and ended in Cook's death. Samwell published this account in 1786 partly to defend Cook's reputation against criticism that he had acted rashly, so it is a firsthand record told from the British side of events. The word he uses to describe the Hawaiian men involved in the fighting shows the prejudiced attitudes common among British sailors of this period rather than giving a fair description of the people defending their chief. 

Bibliographical reference:

Samwell, D. (1786). A narrative of the death of Captain James Cook (pp. n.p.). G. C. J. & J. Robinson. 

Copyright: Public domain.

"So then the men went aboard the ship and took some iron from the ship; the haole [foreigners] saw things being taken from the ship and they shot their guns and fought with the Hawaiians. The haole grabbed a canoe of one of the alii [chiefs] named Palea ... Another haole came with a piece of wood and struck Palea down. Palea's men saw this and they jumped upon the haole men." 

Contextual information:

Samuel Manaiakalani Kamakau was a native Hawaiian historian who collected oral accounts and earlier written records to write the history of his people in the Hawaiian language during the 1860s, publishing it in instalments in the newspaper Ka Nupepa Kuokoa. This passage offers a Hawaiian account of the conflict between Cook's sailors and Kalaniopuu's people at Kealakekua Bay, giving a perspective from the Hawaiian side that is missing from the British journals. The English version quoted here is a working translation of the original Hawaiian text rather than an official published translation. 

Bibliographical reference:

Kamakau, S. M. (1867, February 2). [Account of the death of Captain Cook]. Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, 6(5). https://nupepa-hawaii.com/2016/03/10/the-meeting-of-kalaniopuu-and-cook-1867/ 

Copyright: Public domain.