Historical sources on Rome’s conquest of Italy

Extract A

"In order, therefore, that wars might be not only conducted but also proclaimed with some formality, he wrote down the law, as taken from the ancient nation of the Aequicoli, under which the Fetials act down to this day when seeking redress for injuries. It was customary for the Fetial to carry to the enemies' frontiers a blood-smeared spear tipped with iron or burnt at the end, and, in the presence of at least three adults, to say, 'Inasmuch as the peoples of the Prisci Latini have been guilty of wrong against the People of Rome and the Quirites, and inasmuch as the People of Rome and the Quirites have ordered that there be war with the Prisci Latini, and the Senate of the People of Rome and the Quirites have determined and decreed that there shall be war with the Prisci Latini, therefore I and the People of Rome, declare and make war upon the peoples of the Prisci Latini.' With these words he hurled his spear into their territory. This was the way in which at that time satisfaction was demanded from the Latins and war declared, and posterity adopted the custom." 

Extract B

"It is worth those persons' while to listen, who despise all things human in comparison with riches, and who suppose that there is no room for exalted honour, nor for virtue, unless where riches abound in great profusion. Lucius Quintius, the sole hope of the Roman people, cultivated a farm of four acres, at the other side of the Tiber, which are called the Quintian meadows, opposite to the very place where the dock-yard now is. There, whether leaning on a stake in a ditch which he was digging, or in the employment of ploughing, engaged at least on some rural work, as is certain, after mutual salutations had passed, being requested by the ambassadors to put on his gown, and listen to the commands of the senate, he called to his wife Racilia to bring out his toga from the cottage. As soon as he put this on and came forward, after first wiping off the dust and sweat, the ambassadors, congratulating him, unite in saluting him as dictator: they call him into the city; explain to him what terror now exists in the army." 

Extract C

"She was brought without mishap to the Aventine, her everlasting seat, whither the prayers of the Roman Dictator had called her, and where this same Camillus afterwards dedicated the temple which he had vowed. Such was the fall of Veii, the most wealthy city of the Etruscan league, showing its greatness even in its final overthrow, since after being besieged for ten summers and winters and inflicting more loss than it sustained, it succumbed at last to destiny, being after all carried by a mine and not by direct assault." 

Extract D

"A meeting of the senate was now held, and the consular tribunes were empowered to make terms. A conference took place between Q. Sulpicius, the consular tribune, and Brennus, the Gaulish chieftain, and an agreement was arrived at by which 1000 lbs. of gold was fixed as the ransom of a people destined ere long to rule the world. This humiliation was great enough as it was, but it was aggravated by the despicable meanness of the Gauls, who produced unjust weights, and when the tribune protested, the insolent Gaul threw his sword into the scale, with an exclamation intolerable to Roman ears, 'Woe to the vanquished!'" 

Extract E

"The foremost line consisted of the hastati, formed into fifteen companies, drawn up at a short distance from each other. These were called the light-armed companies, as whilst one-third carried a long spear (hasta) and short iron javelins, the remainder carried shields. This front line consisted of youths in the first bloom of manhood just old enough for service. Behind them were stationed an equal number of companies, called principes, made up of men in the full vigour of life, all carrying shields and furnished with superior weapons. This body of thirty companies were called the antepilani. Behind them were the standards under which were stationed fifteen companies, which were divided into three sections called vexillae, the first section in each was called the pilus, and they consisted of 180 men to every standard (vexillum). The first vexillum was followed by the triarii, veterans of proved courage; the second by the rorarii, or 'skirmishers,' younger men and less distinguished." 

"When the triarii had admitted the hastati and principes through the intervals separating their companies they rose from their kneeling posture and instantly closing their companies up they blocked all passage through them and in one compact mass fell on the enemy as the last hope of the army. The enemy who had followed up the others as though they had defeated them, saw with dread a now and larger army rising apparently out of the earth. There were generally four legions enrolled, consisting each of 5000 men, and 300 cavalry were assigned to each legion." 

Extract F

"The Lanuvians received the rights of citizenship and the restitution of their sacred things, with the provision that the temple of Juno Sospita should belong in common to the Roman people and the Lanuvian burgesses. The Aricinians, Nomentans, and Pedanians were received into citizenship on the same terms as the Lanuvians. To the Tusculans the citizenship which they previously had was maintained, and the guilt of the revolt was visited on a few ring-leaders, without being made a national charge. The Veliternis — Roman colonists — as a punishment for their having so long been in rebellion, a large part of their land was taken from them, and a great number of colonists were sent thither. Their walls were pulled down and their senate deported, and orders were given that they should settle on the other side of the Tiber; if any of them were caught on this side of the Tiber, he should be imprisoned for not more than one night, but must pay a thousand asses. Colonists were also sent to Antium, but with the understanding that the Antiates, if they chose, might be enrolled among the colonists. Their warships were taken from them, and the Antiate people were forbidden the sea; they were admitted, however, to the rights of citizenship. Tibur and Praeneste were deprived of their territory, not because of the general revolt from Rome, in which they had participated with the rest of Latium, but because, being jealous of Rome, they had united in arms with the Gauls, a barbarous nation." 

Extract G

"In the course of a great battle Decius, following his father's example, devoted himself. Both wings of the Samnites and Gauls were routed; twenty-five thousand of the enemy were slain, eight thousand made prisoners. This was the most memorable battle fought in many years, for it left the Romans the undisputed masters of Italy and decided the long contest for supremacy." 

Contextual information:

Titus Livius (Livy) was a Roman historian who lived c. 59 BC – AD 17. He wrote Ab Urbe Condita (From the Founding of the City), a history of Rome covering events from the city's legendary origins to his own era. The passages quoted were written during the reign of the Emperor Augustus and draw on earlier Roman annalistic sources. 

Bibliographical reference:

Livy. The History of Rome (Rev. Canon Roberts, Trans., 1912; Book 1, chap. 32; Book 3, chap. 26; Book 5, chaps. 22, 48; Book 8, chaps. 8, 14). E. P. Dutton and Co. (Original work written c. 27–9 BC) 

Copyright: Public domain. 

"But after this victory Pyrrhus told one of his friends who was congratulating him, that one more such victory would utterly undo him; for he had lost a great part of the forces he brought with him, and all his friends and principal commanders; there were no others there to make recruits from, and he found the confederates in Italy backward; while Antigonus' side was grown strong. Whereas Rome still had a fresh supply of men, as from a fountain continually flowing within the city, and was quickly recruiting her losses, nothing being dismayed by their defeat, but even getting new courage and fresh determination for the war from their anger." 

"When Pyrrhus had thus first set things in order in Sicily, he returned again into Italy; and the Romans, hearing of his coming, gave up the siege of Tarentum, and prepared to fight him. He engaged them near the city of Beneventum, and being beaten in the battle, was quite driven out of Italy." 

Contextual information:

Plutarch was a Greek biographer and essayist who lived c. AD 46–120. His Parallel Lives pairs famous Greeks and Romans, and includes a Life of Pyrrhus, drawing on earlier Greek and Roman historical accounts. Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded southern Italy from 280 BC at the invitation of Tarentum, fighting Rome with costly victories before eventually withdrawing in 275 BC. 

Bibliographical reference:

Plutarch. Life of Pyrrhus (B. Perrin, Trans., 1919; Vol. IX, pp. 413, 471). William Heinemann. (Original work written c. AD 100) 

Copyright: Public domain.

"The Romans and Carthaginians made also another treaty, at the time of Pyrrhus' invasion, before the Carthaginians had commenced the war for Sicily. In this document all the previous articles are maintained, and there is added to them the following: 'If they make a treaty either with Pyrrhus, they shall do so with the mutual provision, that if one of the two is attacked, the other shall go to its assistance, according as the necessitated party shall require. If Rome is in need of assistance, Carthage shall supply it, as far as her ships are concerned, both for transport and for service; but the expense of pay for the men shall be borne by Rome. And if Carthage is in need of assistance, Rome shall do the same. The contracting parties shall give mutual assistance to the other, if attacked, and the power that has been helped shall make peace conjointly with its ally.'" 

Contextual information:

Polybius was a Greek historian who lived c. 200–118 BC. His Histories chronicles Rome's rise to Mediterranean power, including the series of Roman–Carthaginian treaties he reproduces from what he claims were inscribed bronze tablets in the treasury at Rome. His account is the most detailed ancient source for these diplomatic arrangements. 

Bibliographical reference:

Polybius. The Histories (E. S. Shuckburgh, Trans., 1889; Vol. I, Book 3, chap. 25, p. 219). Macmillan and Co. (Original work written c. 167–118 BC) 

Copyright: Public domain.