The 11th Century: the world before the Crusades

In order to understand how the First Crusade began, it is important to learn about the major political powers in Europe and the Middle East during the 11th century.

These empires wielded considerable influence over the region and competed for control of territory and resources.

The Abbasid Caliphate was founded in AD 750 by the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad's uncle, Abbas.

The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate, which had its capital in Damascus, and moved the Abbasid capital to Baghdad.

As a result, Baghdad became the capital of the Muslim World for the centuries leading up to the 11th Century.

The Abbasids ruled over a vast empire that encompassed much of the Muslim world.

They oversaw an era of prosperity and cultural achievement, patronized art and literature, and made advances in science and medicine.

However, by the 11th century, the Abbasid Caliphate was in decline. It was beset by internal strife and conflict with neighboring powers such as the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Turks.

The Fatimid Caliphate was established in AD 909 by Ali al-Husayn, a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad's daughter Fatima.

This Muslim dynasty took their name from her, which is why is it known as the 'Fatimid' Caliphate.

al-Husayn rose up in rebellion against the Abbasid caliphate and sought to build his own Muslim empire.

The Fatimids conquered Egypt and established their capital at Cairo. From there, they expanded their empire to include North Africa, Sicily, and the Levant.

The Fatimids were great patrons of art and architecture, and their reign was marked by an era of prosperity and learning. 

However, like the Abbasid Caliphate, the Fatimid Caliphate was in decline by the 11th century.

The Seljuk Turks were a nomadic people from Central Asia who rose to power in the 11th century.

They seized control of the Abbasid Caliphate's territories in Iran and Iraq.

During the late 8th and early 9th century AD, the Abbasid Caliphate was under constant military pressure from both Fatimid Egypt and the Byzantine Empire.

To counteract these pressures, the Abbasids had incorporated the militaristic Seljuk Turks from Iran into their armies, as they proved to be powerful warriors.

In particular, during the reign of Caliph Al-Mutasim, Seljuk tribal leaders were promoted into influential military and government positions until the Abbasid military was predominantly composed of Seljuk forces.

In return for giving their support to the caliph in Baghdad, the caliph named the Seljuk ruler his 'Sultan', which is an Arabic word that means 'power'.

This arrangement with the caliph was greatly beneficial for the Seljuks: firstly, because it gave them major legitimacy within the Islamic Empire, and secondly, they had a great opportunity to increase their own power base.

The Seljuk Turks were great warriors, and under the leadership of Sultan Alp Arslan, they inflicted a crushing defeat on the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert in AD 1071.

This victory opened up Anatolia to Turkish settlement, and the Seljuk Turks went on to establish several principalities in Anatolia.

However, the Seljuk Turk Empire was divided by internal conflict in the 11th century.

The Byzantine Empire was founded by Constantine I in AD 330. It originally comprised the eastern half of the Roman Empire but later expanded to include much of the Mediterranean basin. 

During the early medieval period, the Byzantine Empire developed into a great maritime power, and its fleet guarded the coasts of Italy and the Levant from Muslim attacks.

To a lesser degree, the Byzantine Empire was also a land power. However, over 500 years, its armies had repeatedly clashed with the Muslim powers of the Abbasid Caliphate and other external threats. 

By the 11th century, however, the Byzantine Empire was in a period of decline. The growing costs of funding wars had stretched their finances, and a series of recent defeats had meant that they had lost a significant amount of territory in Asia Minor.

In Western Europe, political fragmentation following the barbarian invasions that destroyed the western Roman Empire, led to the rise of several powerful monarchies: England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Portugal.

Each of these states were separate kingdoms that were ruled by their own monarch.

For centuries, these states were often in conflict with one another as they vied for territory and power.

This was due to the nature of the feudal system, which had developed out of Germanic tribal culture.

The feudal system was built on the expectation of constant warfare, which rewarded powerful nobles who could field large armies of knights.

In the 11th century, there was a significant change in the political landscape of Western Europe.

This was due to the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. The Normans were originally Viking raiders from Scandinavia who settled in Normandy, France, in the late 900s.

The Normans conquered England and established their own monarchy there. This had several major consequences for both England and Normandy.

Firstly, it created a powerful state that was much larger than any of the other kingdoms in Western Europe.

Secondly, it brought the feudal system to England, which would have a profound impact on English society for centuries to come.

Finally, it made Normandy one of the most powerful states in Europe.

One of the most influential institutions in western Europe at this time was the Catholic Church.

The Church oversaw an extensive network of monasteries, churches, and schools. The Church was also a major landowner, and it had significant economic power.

This made the Pope one of the most influential people in Western Europe.

Each of the separate kingdoms in western Europe had converted to Christianity over the last few centuries and swore allegiance to the head of the Catholic Church, known as the Pope.

Theoretically, if the Pope gave an order to these rulers, they were obliged to obey.

Crucially, in the face of the constant warfare of the early Middle Ages, the Church was the only potentially unifying force.

This was due to the fact that the Church was not only a religious institution, but a political one as well.

Many of the bishops and archbishops of the different European kingdoms were also powerful nobles.

The concept of pilgrimage was also an important factor in 11th century Europe and the Middle East.

Pilgrimages were journeys to holy sites that were believed to have spiritual power, and could 'wash away' sins.

Pilgrims travelled on foot or horseback, and they would often fast (deny themselves food for a period of time) or perform other acts of devotion during their journey.

Pilgrimages were popular in Christianity and they served as a way for people to connect with their faith.

During the early 11th century, there were a series of Peace of God movements. These were religious and political campaigns that sought to end the constant warfare between Christian states.

The Peace of God movement was started by the Church in an attempt to stop the violence that was being perpetrated against civilians during these wars.

The idea behind these movements was that there were particular days during the year that were considered to be 'holy', and that Christian kings were not allowed to fight other Christians on those days.

Such days included every Sunday and Friday during the week, Christmas, Easter, the 40 days of Lent, the 40 days of Advent, and dozens of saint's days as well. 

In practice, most Christian rulers believed that the number of days being proposed was too many.

As a result, the kings simply ignored these instructions and went to war anyway. Constant warfare between Christian kingdoms continued to be a problem for which various popes sought a solution.

Despite the rise of several powerful states, the 11th century was a period of great instability.

This was due to the ongoing conflict between the Christian and Muslim powers, as well as the political fragmentation of Europe.

This instability would eventually lead to the Crusades, a series of wars fought between Christians and Muslims for control of the Holy Land.